5.

Dynamic behavior of First-order

and Second-order Systems
• Contents
1. Standard Process Inputs.
2. Response of First-Order Systems.
3. Response of Integrating Process.
4. Response of Second-Order Systems.

• In this chapter, we learn how process respond to typical

changes in some of input changes.
• Two categories in process inputs.
1. Inputs that can be manipulated to control the process.
2. Inputs that are not manipulated, classified as disturbance or
load variable.
 5.1 Standard Process Inputs
- Six important types of input changes.
1. Step input.
0 t  0 xs (t )
xs (t )   (5.1)
M t  0
M time
X s ( s)  (5.2)
s Figure 5.1. Step input.
2. Ramp input.
0 t  0
x R (t )   (5.3) x R (t )
at t  0 slop  a
a
X R (s)  2 (5.4) time
s
Figure 5.2. Ramp input.
3. Rectangular Pulse.
0 t  0

x RP (t )  h 0  t  t w (5.5)
0 t  t
 w xRP (t )
or
x RP (t )  h[ S (t )  S (t  t w )] (5.6)
time
Where S (t ) is unit step function.
Figure 5.3. Rectangular Pulse.
h
X RP ( s )  (1  exp(t w s )) (5.7)
s

4. Sinusoidal input.
0 t  0
xsin (t )   (5.8)
 A sin t t  0
A
X sin ( s )  2 (5.9)
s 2
5. Impulse input.
X impulse ( s )  1 (5.10)

– It has the simplest Laplace transform, but it is not a realistic input

signal. Because to obtain an impulse input, it is necessary to inject
amount of energy or material into a process in an infinitesimal
length of time.

6. Random inputs.
– Many process inputs change with time in such a complex manner
that it is not possible to describe them as deterministic functions of
time. If an input exhibits apparently random fluctuation, it is
convenient to characterize it in statistical terms.
 5.2 Response of First-Order Systems
- General first-order transfer function.
Y (s) K
 (5.11)
X ( s ) s  1

Where K is the process gain and  is the time constant.

 Find Y (s ) and y (t ) for some particular input X (s ) .
1. Step response.
M
X (s)  (5.12)
s
K M
Y (s)   (5.13)
s  1 s
y (t )  KM (1  exp( t  )) (5.14)

Figure 5.4. Step response.

 A first-order system does not respond instantaneously to a
sudden change in its input and that after a time interval equal to the
 ( ), the process response is still only 63.2%
process time constant
complete.
 Theoretically the process output never reaches the new
steady-state value; it does approximate the new value when t
equals 3 to 5 process time constants.
2. Ramp response.
a
X (s)  (5.15)
s2
Ka Ka 2 Ka Ka
Y (s)  2    2 (5.16)
s (s  1) s  1 s s
y (t )  Ka (exp( t  )  1)  kat (5.17)
 Interesting property for large values of time( t   ).
y (t )  Ka (t   ) (5.18)

 After an initial transient

period, the ramp input yields
a ramp output with slope
equal to Ka , but shifted in
time but the process time
constant  .
Figure 5.5. Ramp response.
- comparison of input and output.
3. Sinusoidal response.
A
X (s)  2 (5.19)
s  2

KA KA   2 s  
Y (s)  2     2 
(5.20)
( s   )(s  1)    1 s  1 s  
2 2 2 2 2
s  
2

KA
y (t )  2 2  exp( t  )   cos(t )  sin(t ) (5.21)
  1
– By trigonometric identities.
KA KA
y (t )  2 2 exp( t  )  sin(t   ) (5.22)
  1   1
2 2

Where   tan 1 ( ) .

 Trigonometric identities.
a sin   b cos  a 2  b 2 sin(   ) (5.23)
Where   tan 1
(b a ).
• Remarks
1. In both (5.21) and (5.22), the exponential term goes to zero
as t   leaving a pure sinusoidal response.
 Frequency Response ! (will be discussed later).
2. Since  2 2  1  1 , amplitude is less than output KA f or
input A .  Amplitude attenuation !
Phase lag
KA
u(t) 2 A y(t) ()  2 2  1
2
t Process t
1 3
1 3

Figure 5.6. Typical sinusoidal response.

 5.3 Response of Integrating Process Units
• What is an ‘Integrating Process’?
; The process which has integrating unit( 1 s ) in its transfer function.
– Open-loop unstable process(Non-self-regulating process).

A process that cannot reach a new steady state when subjected to

step changes in inputs is called ‘Open-loop unstable process’ or
‘Non-self-regulating process’.

 Which process is an integrating process?

u(t) u(t)
qi qi

y(t) q y(t)
q
Figure 5.7. Liquid level system with a pump(a) or
valve(b).
Answer ) (a) is the integrating process!

The flowrate of the effluent stream (b) increase automatically if

the level increase. Therefore, the influent flowrate is increased
then the level will increase and the effluent flowrate also
increased up to the influent flowrate so the level will converge.
 Liquid level system with a valve is a stable(or self-regulating)
process.

But, in (a), regardless of the level, the effluent flowrate is constant

due to the pump. So, if the influent flowrate is bigger than the
effluent stream the level always increase, vice versa. That is, the
difference between the influent flowrate and the effluent flowrate
is integrated to the process output(the level).
 Liquid level system with a pump is a unstable(or non-self-
regulating) process.
• Example
dh
A  qi  q (5.24)
dt
Where q is independent of h.
AsH ( s )  Qi ( s )  Q( s ) (5.25)
11 11
H (S )  Qi ( s )  Q( s ) (5.26)
As As

Integrating process !
u(t)
qi

h
y(t) q
A
Figure 5.8. Liquid level system with a pump.
 5.4 Response of Second-Order Systems
• A second order transfer function can arise physically,
– Two first-order processes are connected in series.
Y (s) K1 K 2 K
G(s)    (5.27)
X ( s ) ( 1s  1)( 2 s  1) ( 1 s  1)( 2 s  1)

Figure 5.9. Two first-order systems in series

yield an overall second-order system.

– A second-order differential equation process model is

transformed.
• Standard form of the second-order transfer function.
K
G(s)  (5.28)
 2 s 2  2s  1
Where
K is the process gain.
 is the time constant which determines the speed of
response of the system.
 is the damping factor which provides a measure of the
amount of damping in the system, that is, the degree of
oscillation in a process response after a perturbation.
• Three important subcases.
– Denominator of (5.28);
s s
 s  2s  1  (
2 2
 1)(  1) (5.29)
   1
2
   1
2

– Roots ;
 
1  (5.30)  2  (5.31)
   2 1    12

   0 ; unstable second-order system that would have an

unbounded response to any input.
1. Step response.
M KM
X (s)  , Y (s)  2 2 (5.32)
s ( s  2s  1) s
Case a.   1 , root are real and distinct: Overdamped.
t 1 2  1 2
y (t )  KM {1  exp( )[cosh( t)  sinh( t )]}(5.33)
  1 2 
Case b.   1 , double root: Critically damped.
t t
y (t )  KM [1  (1  ) exp( )] (5.34)
 
Case c. 0    1 , complex root: Underdamped.
t 1 2  1 2
y (t )  KM {1  exp( )[cos( t)  sin( t )]}
  1 2 
1 t 2 t
 KM {1  exp( ) sin( 1     )} (5.35)
1 2  

Where   tan ( 1    )
1 2
 Figure 5.10. Step response of critically-damped and overdamped(a),
and underdamped(b) second-order processes.

• Remarks
– Responses exhibiting oscillation and overshoot( y KM  1 )
are obtained only for values of  less than one.
– Large value of  yield a sluggish response.
– The faster response without overshoot is obtained for
critically damped case(   1 ).
 • A number of terms that describe the
dynamics of underdamped processes.
1. Rise time( t r ) is the time the process
output takes to first reach the new
steady-state value.
2. Time to first peak( t p ) is the time
required for the output to reach its first
maximum value.
3. Settling time( t s ) is defined as the time
required for the process output reach and
remain inside a band whose width is
Figure 5.11. Performance characteristics equal to  5% of the total change in y .
for the step response.
4. Overshoot. OS  a b
5. Decay ratio. DR  c a
6. Period of Oscillation( P ) is the time
between two successive peaks or two
successive valleys of the responses.
• Rise time.

tr  (   ) (5.36)
1 2

 1 t 2 t 
 1  1  exp( ) sin( 1     ) 
1 2  
 
 2 t

sin( 1    )  0 
  

• Time to first peak. dy dt  0


tp  (5.37)
1 2

• Overshoot.
OS  exp(  1 2 ) (5.38)
[a  y (t  t p )  b  KM exp(  1   2 )]
• Decay ratio. DR  (OS ) 2  exp( 2 1 2 ) (5.39)
[c  y (t  3 1   2 )  b  KM exp( 3 1 2 ) ]
2
• Period of oscillation. P  (5.40)
1 2

Figure 5.12. Relation between some performance characteristics of an

underdamped second-order process and the process damping coefficient.
 2. Sinusoidal response.
A
X (s)  2 (5.41)
s  2

KM A
Y (s)  2 2  2
( s  2s  1) s   2
 2  A
 1   23 2 (5.42)
s  1 s   2 s  
As t   , the first and second terms vanish.
Thus the output for large values of time is obtained as follows.
KA
y (t )  sin(t   ) (5.43)
[1  ( ) ]  (2 )
2 2 2

2
Where    tan 1
[ ]
1  ( ) 2

K
– Amplitude ratio AR  (5.44)
[1  ( ) ]  (2 )
2 2 2

1
– Normalized amplitude ratio ARN  (5.45)
[1  ( ) ]  (2 )
2 2 2
 – The maximum value of ARN can be found by differentiating
(5.45) with respect to  .
1 1  2 2
ARN  , max  , 0    0.707 (5.46)
max
2 1   2 
For   0.707 , there is no maximum.

 At high frequency, the

output is well damped.
 At low frequency, the
output is not damped
well.

Figure 5.13. Sinusoidal response amplitude of a

second-order system after exponential terms have
become negligible.