TRANSMISSION LINES -2

LESSON NO. 2
 Transmission Line Termination

• Impedance Matching

– Termination

• Mismatch

– Reflection
Effects of various terminations on standing waves.

As illustrated in the figure (next slide), view A, the curve, provided there are
no losses in the line, will be a straight line. If there are losses in the line, the
amplitude of the voltage and current will diminish as they move down the line
(view B). The losses are due to dc resistance in the line itself.
NONRESONANT line – when an infinitely long
transmission line is terminated in its
characteristic impedance, it has NO STANDING
WAVES of current and voltage & this is called
nonresonant line.

RESONANT line – is a lline NOT terminated in

its characteristic impedance and has a
STANDING WAVES of current and voltage.
TERMINATING A TRANSMISSION LINE

FLAT LINE – is a line with no reflections; all the energy

traveling down the line is absorbed by the load which
terminates the line. No standing waves are present in this type
of line. (mismatched or resonant line)

UNTUNED LINE - the load impedance of this line is equal to Z0,

no special tuning devices are required to effect a maximum
power transfer. (matched or nonresonant line)
REFLECTIONS ON A TRANSMISSION LINE

RESONANT LINES

The load impedance is different from the Z0 of the line;

therefore, the input impedance may not be purely resistive
but may have reactive components.

Tuning devices are used to eliminate the reactance and to

bring about maximum power transfer from the source to the
line. Therefore, a resonant line is sometimes called a TUNED
LINE.
On an open-ended
resonant line, and at all
odd 1/4 λ points, the
voltage is minimum, the
current is maximum, and
the impedance is
minimum.

At all even 1/4  λ  points,

the voltage is maximum,
the current is minimum
and the impedance is
maximum.
- Sending-end impedance of various lengths and terminations.
REFLECTIONS ON A TRANSMISSION LINE

 When a line is not terminated in Z0, the incident

energy is not absorbed but is returned along the
only path available - the transmission line.

 A line cannot always be terminated in its

characteristic impedance since it is sometimes
operated as an OPEN-ENDED line and other
times as a SHORT-CIRCUIT at the receiving end.
 A transmission line can be terminated in its characteristic impedance
as an open- or short-circuit, or in capacitance or inductance.
Whenever the termination on a transmission line is NOT EQUAL TO
Z0, there are reflections on the line.

The amount of voltage reflected may be found by using the equation:

Reflected voltage

When the termination on a transmission line EQUALS Z0, there is NO reflected

voltage.
 Reflections
• In a line where the termination is equal to the
impedance of the line, the reflections are zero.
• A line that is terminated other than Z0 is said to be
mismatched and will have reflections.

Vr
• The reflection coefficient is found by:  
Vi

Vr
  = =
Vi
 Reflection and Transmission

Incident 1+r Transmitted

Zt – Load impedance
r Reflected Zo – Characteristic Impedance

Reflection Coefficient Transmission Coefficient

Reflection Coeficient
Transmission Coeffie
Zt  Z0

Zt  Z0   1   "" ""  1 
Zt  Z0
Zt  Z0

2Zt

Transmission Lines Zt  Z0 12
Special Cases to Remember
A: Terminated in Zo
Reflection
Coefficient
Zs -
Zo Zo r = Zo Zo = 0
Vs Zo +Zo

B: Short Circuit
Zs -
Zo r = 0 Zo = -1
Vs 0 + Zo

C: Open Circuit
Zs ¥ -Zo
Zo r= =1
Vs ¥ + Zo

Transmission Lines
 Reflection and Transmission

• Reflection

• Standing Wave Ratio

 Velocity factor
• The ratio of a transmission line's true propagation
velocity and the speed of light in a vacuum is
called the velocity factor of that line.

• Velocity factor is purely a factor of the insulating

material's relative permittivity (otherwise known
as its dielectric constant), defined as the ratio of a
material's electric field permittivity to that of a
pure vacuum.
 Velocity factor
The velocity factor of any cable type -- coaxial or
otherwise -- may be calculated quite simply by the
following formula:
 Velocity Factor
The velocity factor for a transmission line depends almost
entirely upon the dielectric
Problem 2:
Find the velocity factor and propagation velocity for a cable with a
Teflon dielectric (εr = 2.1)
 Voltage Divider Circuit
RS
• Consider the simple
circuit that contains
source voltage VS, RL
VS VL
source resistance RS,
and resistive load RL.
• The output voltage, VL
is easily calculated RL
from the source VL = VS
amplitude and the RL + RS
values of the two
series resistors.

Transmission Lines
Problem: The switch as shown in the figure below closes at time t = 0, applying a 1V source through a
50 ohm resistor that is terminated by a 25 ohms resistor. The line is 10 m in length, with a velocity
factor of 0.7. Draw graphs showing the variation of voltage with time at each end of the line.

Fig. Circuit
Solution:

At t=0, the source voltage will divide between Rs and Zo of the

line. Since the two resistances are equal, the voltage will divide
equally. Therefore, at t= 0, the voltage at the source end of the
line will rise from 0 to 0.5V.

The voltage at the load will remain 0 until the surge reaches it.
The time for this is:
After 47.6 ns, the voltage at the load will rise. The new value can
be found by calculating the reflection coefficient as follows:
The Load Voltage is:
Problem:
What length of standard RG-8/U coaxial cable would be
required to obtain a 45o phase shift of 200 MHz?
TRANSMISSION LINE LOSSES

1. COPPER LOSSES can result from power (I2R) loss, in

the form of heat, or skin effect. These losses
decrease the conductivity of a line.
2. DIELECTRIC LOSSES are caused by the heating of the
dielectric material between conductors, taking
power from the source.
3. RADIATION AND INDUCTION LOSSES are caused by
part of the electromagnetic fields of a conductor
being dissipated into space or nearby objects.
 Wave Propagation on Lines
If a sine wave is applied to a transmission line, the signal
moves down the line and disappears into the load.

Such a signal is called a traveling wave.

This process also takes time.

A time delay of one period causes a phase shift of 360º, which

is indistinguishable from the original.

The length of a line L that causes a delay of one period is

known as a wavelength.
Traveling Waves
 Standing Waves
• The interaction of incident
and reflected waves in a
transmission line results in
standing waves.
 Transmission Line

Standing Wave Ratio

& Reflection Coefficient
 Standing Waves
• The combination of forward and reverse travelling waves
produce a standing-wave, which is so-called because the
positions of maximum and minimum signal do not vary
with time.

• We define a STANDING WAVE RATIO as:

Note: Other text use the beta symbol for reflection coefficient.
 VSWR
VSWR: The ratio of the high voltage points to the low voltage
points is called the voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR). 

SWR: The ratio of the high current points to low current

points is known as current standing ratio or simply as the
standing wave ratio (SWR).
 Reflection and Transmission
• Reflection

Refer to
slide 55

• Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) can also be

expressed in terms of the reflection coefficient:
Effect of mismatch

The perfect condition of no reflection occurs only when the load is purely
resistive and equal to Zo.  Such a condition is called a flat line and indicates a
VSWR of 1.    If the load is a known value of pure resistance, the VSWR can be
determined by the following equation:

Power loss

If reflection occurs because of mismatch, the full generator power does

not reach the load.

The existence of reflections (and re-reflections) increases the power

loss in the form of  I2R heating.
Example:

A transmitter operating with 4-W output is connected via a 10m of RG-8A/U

50-Ohm coaxial cable to an antenna that has an input resistance of 300-
Ohm.  Determine (a)   the VSWR, (b)  the amount of transmitter's 4-W output
absorbed by the antenna.

Solution:

a)

b)

The reflected voltage is r times the incident voltage.  Since power is

proportional to the square of the voltage, the reflected power,
Prefl is (0.71)2 x 4 W = 2.064 W
and the Power to the Antenna = 4 W  - Prefl = 1.98 W
 Variation of Impedance Along a Line
• A matched line presents its impedance to a source
located any distance from the load.

• An unmatched line impedance can vary greatly

with its distance from the load.

• At some points mismatched lines may look

inductive, other points may look capacitive, at still
other points it may look resistive
 Impedance on a Lossless Line

• The impedance on a lossless transmission line is

given by the formula:

Z L cos θ  jZ 0 sin θ
Z  Z0
Z 0 cos θ  jZ L sin θ
 CHARACTERISTICS OF OPEN AND SHORTED LINES

• An open or shorted line can be used as an inductive, capacitive,

or even a resonant circuit.
• In practice, short-circuited sections are more common because
open-circuited lines radiate energy from the open end.
• The impedance of a short-circuited line is:

Zin = jZo tan θ

•The impedance of a short-circuited line is:

Zin = -jZo cot θ

Problem 1:
Calculate the impedance looking into a 50Ω line 1 m long, terminated in a
load impedance of 100Ω. If the line has a velocity factor of 0.8 and
operates at a frequency of 30 MHz.
Problem 1:
Calculate the impedance looking into a 50Ω line 1 m long, terminated in a load
impedance of 100Ω. If the line has a velocity factor of 0.8 and operates at a
frequency of 30 MHz.
Problem No. 2

A coaxial cable has a capacitance of 90pF/m and a characteristic

impedance of 50 Ω. Find the inductance of a 1 meter length line.

Solution:
3. Find the Zo of each of the following lines:

a. Open-wire line with conductors 3 mm in diameter separated by 10 mm.

b. A coaxial cable using polyethylene dielectric having εr = 2.3, with an inner
conductor 2 mm in diameter and an outer conductor 8mm in inside
diameter.
Transmission Line Matching
Variation of Impedance
 Transmission Line Losses

• No real transmission line is completely lossless.

• However, approximation is often valid assuming

lossless lines.
 Loss Mechanisms
The most obvious loss in a transmission line is due to the
resistance of the line, called I2R loss.

The dielectric can also cause loss, with the conductance
becoming higher with increasing frequency.

Open-wire systems can radiate energy

Loss becomes more significant as the frequency increases.

Loss becomes worse as spacing between conductors

increases
 Loss in Decibels
Transmission line losses are usually given in decibels
per 100 feet or 100 meters.

When selecting a transmission line, attention must be

paid to the losses.

A 3-dB loss equates to 1/2 the power being delivered

to the antenna.

Losses are also important in receivers where low noise

depends upon minimizing the losses before the first
stage of amplification
 Mismatched Lossy Lines
• When a transmission line is lossy, the Standing-
Wave Ratio (SWR) at the source is lower than that
at the load.

• The reflection coefficient and standing-wave ratio

both have larger magnitudes at the load.

• Computer programs and Smith Charts are

available to calculate losses and mismatches in
transmission lines
 Power Ratings
The maximum power that can be applied to a
transmission line is limited by one of two things:

Power dissipation in the line.

A maximum voltage, which can break down the

dielectric when exceeded.

A compromise is often achieved in power lines between

voltage and line impedance.
Problem: A generator sends 50 mW down a 50Ω line. The generator is
matched to the line, but the load is not. If the coefficient of reflection is 0.5,
how much power is reflected and how much is dissipated in the load?
Problem:

A transmitter supplies 50W to a load through a

line with SWR of 2:1. Find the power absorbed
by the load.
Transmission-Line Measurements
• Specialized test equipment is available to measure
and evaluate transmission lines using these
techniques:
– Time-Domain Reflectometry
– The Slotted Line
– Standing-Wave-Ratio Meters and Directional
Wattmeters
 The Slotted Line
• A transmission line allowing the sampling of E
field amplitude of a standing wave on a
terminated line.
• With this device the SWR and the distance of
the first voltage minimum from the load can be
measured, from this data ZL can be determined.
• ZL is complex  2 distinct quantities must be
measured.
• Replaced by vector network analyzer.

54
An X-band waveguide slotted line.
55
Standing-Wave-Ratio Meters and Directional Wattmeters
Time-Domain Reflectometry
Transmission Line

Problems
Transmission Line Impedance Matching
(Stub Matching Circuit)

LESSON 3
Why need Impedance Matching
 Maximum power is delivered and power loss is minimum.
 Impedance matching sensitive receiver components improves the signal-to-
noise ratio of the system.
 Impedance matching in a power distribution network will reduce amplitude
and phase errors.

 Basic Idea
 The matching network is ideally lossless and is placed between a load and a
transmission line, to avoid unnecessary loss of power, and is usually
designed so that the impedance seen looking into the matching network is
Z0.
 Multiple reflections will exist between the matching network and the load.

The matching procedure is also referred to as “tuning”.

Quarter wave impedance transformer

Therefore: Zo2 = Zin ZL

SAMPLE PROBLEM:

To match a resistive load, ZLoad, to a line with characteristic impedance ZO, a

l/4 section of line (L2) with characteristic impedance Zm should be placed
between them. Refer to the diagram below. What should be the The
required l/4 section to match the 50-Ohm line to the 300-Ohm resistive
load ?

 
Remember that l/4 matching sections are only effective working into a
resistive load.
 Stub Matching
Stubs are shorted or open circuit lengths of
transmission line which produce a pure reactance
at the attachment point.

Any value of reactance can be made, as the stub

length is varied from zero to half a wavelength.

04/16/2020 65
TRANSMISSION LINE STUB TRANSFORMER

• Impedance transformation/matching can be

achieved by using a simple transmission line
circuit with a shunt or series stub.
1. short circuit stubs
2. open circuit stubs.

• It can also be done with one, two, or three

stubs as described by Collin [3].
Single Stub Tuning

Single-stub tuning
circuits.
(a) Shunt stub.
(b) Series stub.

67
 Matching with Lumped Elements
• L-section is the simplest type of matching network.
• 2 possible configurations

L-section matching networks.

(a) Network for zL inside the 1 + jx circle.
(b) Network for zL outside the 1 + jx circle.
69
Double-
stub
tuning.
(a) Original circuit
with the load an
arbitrary distance
from the first stub.
(b) Equivalent-circuit
with load at the first
stub.

70
There are two design parameters for single stub matching:

1.The location of the stub with reference to the load dstub

2.The length of the stub line L stub

Any load impedance can be matched to the line by using single stub technique.
The drawback of this approach is that if the load is changed, the location of
insertion may have to be moved.

The choice of open or shorted stub may depend in practice on a number of

factors.
• A short circuited stub is less prone to leakage of electromagnetic radiation
and is somewhat easier to realize.
• On the other hand, an open circuited stub may be more practical for certain
types of transmission lines, for example microstrips where one would have to
drill the insulating substrate to short circuit the two conductors of the line.
Single Stub Matching
Matching a Real Load Impedance

Since the circuit is based on insertion of a parallel stub, it is more

convenient to work with admittances, rather than impedances.
The open or short circuit stub matching circuit with YL or YR complex. When YL is real,
d2 = 0 and ΓL = ±| ΓL |.
For proper impedance match:
Calculating Stub Admittance and Location:
1. In order to complete the design, we have to find an appropriate
location for the stub. Note that the input admittance of a stub must
be always imaginary (inductance if negative, or capacitance if
positive)
Ystub = jB(dstub)

2. A stub should be placed at a location where the line admittance

has real part equal to Y0 = 1/Zo

Y(dstub) = Yo + jB

3. For matching, we need to have B(stub) = -B(dstub)

Depending on the length of the transmission line, there may be a

number of possible locations where a stub can be inserted for
impedance matching.

It is very convenient to analyze the possible solutions on a Smith chart.

 Matching a Real Load Impedance
Consider the shunt stub circuit shown in
Fig. on the left side. The load admittance,
YL, is to be matched to the generator side
whose admittance is YG = Y0.
Yin
Yin‘
The distance “ d ” is determined so that
the admittance looking toward the load
just to the right side of the stub is:

Yin‘ = Y0 + jB (1.1)
Matching a Real Load Impedance
When YL is real (as is assumed here),
then d2 = 0 and

Yin‘ = Y0 + jB
ΓL = ± |ΓL|

At the intersection of the main line and

the shunt stub, the shunt stub is
designed to produce a shunt
admittance of −jB which cancels the
susceptance of Y′in leaving:

Yin = (Y′in)− jB = (Yo + jB) − jB = Yo (1.2)

Matching a Real Load Impedance
Because of the periodicity of the tangent function, there are
many solutions for d and shunt stub length ℓ. The admittance
repeats for each added half wavelength nλ/2. Usually it is wise
to choose the smallest values for d and ℓ in order to minimize
frequency sensitivity.

The end of the stub may be either a short or an open circuit.

When the stub length is shorter than a quarter wavelength,
then

B= { tan(βℓ) open circuit

−cot(βℓ) short circuit
Some special cases to consider:
 Matching a Real Load Impedance
• Knowing the sign of the susceptance
required determines whether to use
an open or a short circuited stub to
achieve the minimum distance “ℓ”.
• Then the only two design parameters
that need to be found are d and ℓ.
 Matching a Real Load Impedance
• The load admittance is assumed to be real, so that YL = GL. At a
distance d from the load,
Note:

GL + j Yo tan θ
Y′in = Yo + jB = Yo ------------------- (1.4)
Yo + j GL tan θ

Yo(GL + j Yo tan θ) = (Yo + jB)(Yo + j GL tan θ) (1.5)

where θ = βd.
Yo(GL + j Yo tan θ) = (Yo + jB)(Yo + j GL tan θ)

YoGL + j Yo2 tan θ = Yo2 + jBYo + j2BGL tan θ + j Yo GL tan θ ; where: j2 = -1

= Yo2 + jBYo - BGL tan θ + j Yo GL tan θ

YoGL + j Yo2 tan θ = Yo2 - BGL tan θ + jYo (GL tan θ + B)

The real and imaginary parts of this equation are:

Yo GL = Yo2 − B GL tan θ (1.6)

jYo2 tan θ = j Yo(B + GL tan θ) (1.7)

Matching a Real Load Impedance

Yo(Yo − GL)
tan θ = ------------------ (1.8)
B GL
B = (Yo− GL)tan θ (1.9)

Substitution of Eq. (1.9) into Eq. (1.8) gives:

where θ = βd.
 Matching a Real Load Impedance
The ambiguity in the sign for the √GL in Eq. (1.10) is used to
determine the stub length ℓ.

The “+” sign is chosen when 0 < βd1 < π/2 or when 0 < d1 < λ/4.
The “-” sign is chosen when λ/4 < d1 < λ/2.

From Eqs. (1.9) and (1.10)

 Matching a Real Load Impedance
The transmission line equation gives the input admittance for
a short circuit stub as:
∆
Ystub = −jB = −jY0 cot βℓ = −jY0 cot φ (1.15)

• The design is complete since the characteristic admittance and length of

each line section have been found.

• The design of the open circuit stub is similar and will be given after
considering matching to a complex load.
 Matching a Complex Load Impedance
The voltage across the transmission line varies sinusoidally as
a function of the position along the line. At a certain point, the
voltage will reach a minimum as inferred by
V (z) = V+ e−jßz + V− e +jßz.
 Matching a Complex Load Impedance
The variable, S, is the voltage standing wave ratio which is a scalar ratio of the
maximum to minimum voltage on the transmission line.

Moving from the load admittance, YL, a distance d2 will give an admittance
looking toward the load a real value of Y0S for the “load” at position d2. The
equations for the real load admittance can now be used where GL = Y0S. From
Eqs. (1.12), (1.13), and (1.17)

Choose the +√S when 0 < d1 < λ/4, and −√S when λ/4 < d1 < λ/2.
 Matching a Complex Load Impedance
The total distance from the complex load, YL, to the stub
is d = d1 + d2

Then by analogy with Eqs. (1.16) and (1.17),

For a complex load:

 Example: Design a matching circuit for a load impedance of ZL = 30 + j40
with Z0 = 50 using a short circuit stub.

The reflection coefficient at the load is

The magnitude of ГL is 0.5 and the angle ψ is π/2. Since,

The sign change in Eq. (1.29) is a result of placing the origin at the load and moving in
the −z direction toward the generator a distance of d2. The minus sign is used to ensure
positive line lengths for d2. Solving Eqs. (1.30) and (1.31) for d2 gives
In the present example, ψ = π/2 so that d2 = 0.375λ.
From Eq. (1.21) the standing wave ratio, S = 3, from Eq. (1.23)

d1 = 0.0833 λ so that
d = d1 + d2 = 0.4583 λ,

and from Eq. (1.24) ℓ = 0.205 λ.

• End of presentation