CHAPTER 3

URBAN DESIGN
 INTRODUCTION

URBAN DESIGN IS A BRIDGE BETWEEN THE PROFESSIONS OF

URBAN PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE. THE PRIMARY
CONCERN OF URBAN DESIGN HAS BEEN WITH THE PHYSICAL
FORM OF THE CITY. FOR MOST OF RECORDED HISTORY,
ARCHITECTURE AND URBAN PLANNING HAVE SHARED A
CONCERN WITH THE OVERALL DESIGN OF HUMAN
SETTLEMENTS AND THE QUALITY OF THE PHYSICAL
ENVIRONMENT. IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY URBAN DESIGN
HAS FOCUSED ON THE FORM OF URBAN SETTLEMENTS AND
THE CULTURAL PROCESSES WHICH AFFECT THOSE FORMS.

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 URBAN DESIGN

 HISTORIC CONTRIBUTIONS TO URBAN DESIGN

 THE ELEMENTS OF URBAN DESIGN

 URBAN DESIGN AND PHYSICAL PLANNING CONCERNS

 MECHANISMS FOR IMPLEMENTING URBAN DESIGN

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 HISTORIC CONTRIBUTIONS TO URBAN DESIGN

THERE IS NO SINGLE DEFINITION TO URBAN DESIGN. EACH AGE AND

CULTURE HAS PRODUCED ITS OWN DEFINITION BASED ON ITS OWN
EXPECTATIONS AND POSIBILITIES. URBAN DESIGN IS A PHENOMENON
CLOSELY ASSOCIATED WITH BOTH ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING; IT
MAY MANIFEST ITSELF IN THE FACADE OF A BUILDING, DESIGN OF A
STREET, OR A PLAN FOR AN ENTIRE TOWN OR REGION. SIMPLY PUT,
URBAN DESIGN IS CONCERNED WITH THE FORM OF URBANIZED AREAS

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 HISTORIC CONTRIBUTIONS TO URBAN DESIGN

THE CULTURAL CONTEXT OF URBAN DESIGN

IT IS POSSIBLE TO PUT URBAN DESIGN IN TWO CATEGORIES

 SELF CONSCIOUS

- SELF CONSCIOUS URBAN DESIGN IS CREATED BY PEOPLE WHO THINK OF THEMSELVES AS DESIGNERS.

- A SELF CONSCIOUS DESIGN IS USUALLY BASED UPON A SET OF CLEARLY STATED DESIGN IDEAS OR
PRINCIPLES

 UN-SELF-CONSCIOUS

- UN-SELF-CONSCIOUS URBAN DESIGN IS CREATED BY PEOPLE WHO DO NOT THINK OF THEMSELVES AS

DESIGNERS, BUT WHO DO AFFECT THE FORM OF THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT.

- UN-SELF-CONSCIOUS DESIGN BASED UPON INTUITIONS THAT ARE NOT CLEARLY STATED

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 HISTORIC CONTRIBUTIONS TO URBAN DESIGN
MICHELANGELO’S DESIGN FOR THE PIAZZA DI CAMPIDOGLIO IN ROME, IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY, WAS CAREFULLY
CONCEIVED, VERY SELF-CONSCIOUSLY, BY A MASTER OF AESTHETIC PRINCIPLES.

IT REMAINS ONE OF THE FINEST SQUARES IN THE WORLD

SELF-CONSCIOUS DESIGN: PIAZZA DI CAMPIDOGLIO, ROME, BY MICHELANGELO.

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 HISTORIC CONTRIBUTIONS TO URBAN DESIGN
AN EQUALLY FINE SQAURE EXISTS
ON THE GREEK ISLAND OF
SANTORINI, IN FRONT OF ST.
GEORGE’S CHURCH IN THE SMALL
TOWN OF OIA. THE PEOPLE OF OIA
BUILT THIS SQUARE USING
BUILDING TECHNIQUES AND A
RESPECT FOR FORM THAT HAD
BEEN PASSED DOWN FOR
GENERATIONS.

UN-SELF-CONSCIOUS DESIGN: ST. GEORGE’S

CHURCH, OIA, GREECE.

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 HISTORIC CONTRIBUTIONS TO URBAN DESIGN
FOR THE ARCHITECT, THE SIMPLE ACT OF LOCATING A BUILDING IN AN URBAN SETTING IS AN ACT OF
URBAN DESIGN, BECAUSE THE NEW BUILDING TRANSFORMS THE CHARACTER OF THE ENVIRONMENT

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 HISTORIC CONTRIBUTIONS TO URBAN DESIGN
THE DECISIONS OF THE PLANNER ALSO AFFECT URBAN DESIGN. THE LOCATION OF
THE ROADS, SERVICES (INFRASTRUCTURES), AND ACTIVITIES IS PART OF URBAN FORM

THE URBAN PLANNER’S ABILITY TO CONTROL URBAN FORM IS TEMPERED BY THE

REGULATORY POWER OF GOVERNMENT AND BY PUBLIC AND PRIVATE ATTITUDES
TOWARDS DEVELOPMENT .
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 HISTORIC CONTRIBUTIONS TO URBAN DESIGN
URBAN FORM AND PEOPLE’S REACTION TO IT ARE INTERACTIVE. REACTION TO THE URBANIZED ENVIRONMENT
OCCURE AT TWO LEVELS:

 PHYSICAL REACTION

- PHYSICAL IMPACT ON HUMAN BEINGS IS FAIRLY OBVIOUS, THE PHYSICAL FORM OF A CITY DETERMINES HOW FAR AWAY
ONE LIVES FROM SCHOOL, WORK, PLAY, AND FRIENDS.

- IT DETERMINES THE KIND OF RECREATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES ONE HAS:

PARKs BEACHES PLAYGROUNDS

IT ALSO AFFECTS THE KIND OF DWELLING ONE LIVES IN
- THE AMOUNT OF NOISE ONE IS SUBJECTED TO
- THE AMOUNT OF TIME IT TAKES TO GO SHOPPING

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 PSYCHOLOGICAL OR EMOTIONAL REACTION

- PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPACT IS LESS EASILY DETERMINED, ALTHOUGH A GREAT AMOUNT OF RESEARCH IS

CURRENTLY BEING CONDUCTED ON THIS TOPIC.

- EXCESSIVE NOISE CAN CAUSE ANXIETY AS WELL AS HEARING IMPAIRMENT

- APPEARANCE OF THE ENVIRONMENT CAN AFFECT ONE’S SENSE OF PRIDE
- THE VISUAL FORM OF SOME CITIES MAKES THEM EASIER TO UNDERSTAND

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS THE CITY FULFILLS ARE IMPORTANT. CIVILIZATIONS THROUGHOUT TIME
HAVE BEEN SENSITIVE TO THESE PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS

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 HISTORIC CONTRIBUTIONS TO URBAN DESIGN

THE EARLIEST URBAN DESIGNERS WERE THE WISE MEN OR RELIGIOUS LEADERS, THE AUGURS, SHAMANS,
AND PRIESTS, WHO SET FORTH THE LAYOUT AND BOUNDARIES OF A SETTLEMENT
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 HISTORIC CONTRIBUTIONS TO URBAN DESIGN

THE HIGH POINT OF SYMBOLIC CONCERNS WAS REACHED IN ROME FROM 1586 TO 1691, WHEN
A SUCCESSION OF POPES, BEGINNING WITH SIXTUS V, GLORIFIED THE CITY AS THE CENTER OF
CHRISTIANITY, THIS WAS ACHIEVED THROUGH A DESIGN THAT LINKED STREETS, SQUARES,
AND BUILDINGS SO THAT ALL THE MAJOR RELIGIOUS BUILDINGS OF ROME WERE SPATIALLY
AND VISUALLY CONNECTED.

THE DESIGN WAS FURTHER ENHANCED BY ADDING FOUNTAINS AND MONUMENTS TO THE SQUARES
IT HAS BEEN SEEN THAT IMPORTANT BUILDINGS USUALLY ARE PLACED IN THE MOST
CENTRAL, CONVENIENT, OR STRATEGIC PLACES.

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 HISTORIC CONTRIBUTIONS TO URBAN DESIGN

THE ANCIENT TOWNS OF GREECE

TOOK BOTH THEIR FORM AND SIZE
FROM A PATTERN BASED ON A
LIFESTYLE MADE POSSIBLE BY A
TEMPERATE CLIMATE

THE SIZE OF THE GREEK CITY-STATE

WAS LIMITED TO ALLOW A
DEMOCRATIC COMMUNICATION. NEW
COLONIES WERE ESTABLISHED AS
NECESSARY TO RELIEVE THE PARENT
CITY OF EXCESS POPULATION. THE
MEDIEVAL TOWN TOOK ITS FORM
FROM THE NEED FOR PROTECTION IN
A WORLD WHERE DANGER WAS EVER
PRESENT OUTSIDE THE WALLS

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TECHNOLOGY HAS PLAYED A PART IN DETERMINING URBAN FORM.

THE ENGINEERING FEATS OF THE ANCIENT ROMANS HAD AN
ASTONISHING EFFECT ON THEIR ABILITY TO BUILD CITIES AND TO
GOVERN LARGE AREAS. THEIR ABILITY TO CONSTRUCT ROADS MADE IT
POSSIBLE TO ESTABLISH REGIONAL COMMUNICATION NETWORKS AND
MOVE ARMIES AND MATERIALS EFFICIENTLY.

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THE AQUEDUCT MADE POSSIBLE SETTLEMENT IN LOCATIONS WHERE THERE WERE NO SPRINGS, AND THE
SIZE OF THE A CITY WAS NO LONGER DETERMINED BY THE LOCAL WATER SUPPLY

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 HISTORIC CONTRIBUTIONS TO URBAN DESIGN

 THE DECLINE OF ROME’S ENGINEERING SKILLS IN THE DARK AGES MEANT A RADICAL
CHANGE IN THE FUTURE OF CITIES THAT LASTED FOR MANY CENTURIES.

 MANY OF THOSE TECHNOLOGICAL SKILLS WERE NOT REGAINED UNTIL THE NINETEENTH
CENTURY,

 THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION NOT ONLY ENCOURAGED THE MIGRATION OF PEOPLE TO

THE CITY, IT ALSO MADE POSSIBLE A NEW FORM OF CITY

 MASSIVE ENGINEERING PROJECTS, RAILROADS, SUBWAYS, SEWERS, NEW FORMS OF

CONSTRUCTION, AND UNDREAMED-OF PHYSICAL CAPABILITIES GAVE CITIES SEEMINGLY
UNLIMITED OPPORTUNITIES FOR GROWTH.

 OF ALL THE INVENTIONS OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION THERE IS NOTHING TO

COMPARE WITH THE IMPACT WHICH THE INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE AND THE
INTRODUCTION OF THE AUTOMOBILE HAS HAD ON THE VERY NATURE OF THE CITY.

 THE CITIES OF TODAY ARE STILL FEELING THE IMPACT OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

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THE TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT THAT IS MOST LIKELY TO NEXT HAVE AN EMORMOUS

IMPACT ON URBAN DEVELOPMENT IS OUR HIGH ENERGY USE, A BYPRODUCT OF THE
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION.

 WILL THE CITY OF THE FUTURE SHRINK IN SIZE IN RESPONES TO DWINDLING ENERGY
SUPPLIES?
 WILL IT BECOME MORE DENSE, OR BE DISPERSED INTO SMALLER, MORE EFFICIENT
CENTERS?
 WILL OTHER FORMS OF TRANSIT REPLACE THE AUTOMOBILE OR WILL NEW FORMS OF
ENERGY TRANSFORM THE AUTOMOBILE INTO A NEW TYPE OF VEHICLE?
 WILL THE HEIGHT OF BUILDINGS BE CONTROLLED AFFORD EVERYONE EQUAL ACCESS TO
THE SUN’S ENERGY?

KNOWING SOMETHING ABOUT OUR PAST MAKES IT EASY TO PREDICT THAT THE CITY OF THE
FUTURE WILL BE DIFFERENT FROM THE CITY OF THE PRESENT.

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 HISTORIC CONTRIBUTIONS TO URBAN DESIGN

THE IDEOLOGY OF URBAN OF URBAN DESIGN USUALLY TAKES ONE OF THREE FORMS:

 A CONCERN WITH THE AESTHETIC ORDER OF THE CITY

 A CONCERN WITH AN IDEALIZED SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT; OR, MOST FREQUENTLY

 AN IDEALIZED SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT WHICH IS EXPRESSED THROUGH A PHYSICAL IDEAL

PROPOSALS FOR IDEAL CITIES BASED ON AESTHETIC PRINCIPLES CAN BE FOUND AROUND THE
WORLD. OF THOSE CITIES DESIGNED ON THE BASIS OF AESTHETIC PRINCIPLES FEW SURPASS
THE PROPOSALS MADE DURING THE RENAISSANCE

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IN CONTRAST TO THE IDEAL

CITY BASED ON PRAGMATIC
DESIGN PRINCIPLES, MOST
OF THE CITIES PROPOSED
TO SUPPORT AN IDEALIZED
SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT WERE
AUTO PLAN; THEY MOST
FREQUENTLY SOUGHT A
SOCIAL IDEAL THAT WAS
IMPRACTIBLE

AN IDEAL CITY PLAN, 1615, BY

VINCENZO SCAMOZZI.

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AN INTERESTING EXCEPTION TO THIS
RULE WAS EBENEZER HOWARD’S
PROPOSAL FOR A GARDEN CITY.
HOWARD’S PROPOSAL WAS IN
RESPONSE TO THE RAPIDLY
DETERIORATING URBAN ENVIRONMENTS
OF THE LATE NINETEENTH CENTURY
WHICH, HE FELT, HAD GROWN TO A
MONSTROUS SIZE. HE PROPOSED THE
CREATION OF NEW CITIES WITH A
POPULATION LIMITED TO 32,000
PEOPLE. WHERE THE SOCIAL LIFE OF
THE CITY COULD BE REDUCED TO MORE
HUMAN DIMENSIONS. THE NEW CITIES
WOULD BE GROUPED AROUND A MAJOR
CENTRAL CITY, WHOSE GROWTH
COULD BE CONTROLLED BY THE
DEVELOPMENT OF THE SATELLITE
GARDEN CITIES.
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THE FAMOUS PROPOSAL OF LE CORBUSIER FOR AN IDEALIZED URBAN ENVIRONMENT,

THE RADIANT CITY

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THE RADIANT CITY,BY LE CORBUSIER

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PROPOSAL OF
FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT
FOR AN IDEALIZED
SUBURBAN OR AGRARIAN CITY,
BROADACRE CITY

BROAD ACRE CITY,

BY FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT
“THE LIVING CITY 1958”

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RAPOPORT HAS IDENTIFIED THREE ATTITUDES (BORROWED FROM GEOGRAPHERS) TOWARDS

THE EFFECT OF THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT ON PEOPLE. THEY ARE:

A. ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINISM - THE VIEW THAT THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT DOES

DETERMINE HUMAN BEHAVIOR

B. ENVIRONMENTAL POSSIBILISM - THE NOTION THAT THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT MAY

PROVIDE OPPORTUNITIES FOR AND CONSTRAINTS ON HUMAN BEHAVIOR, WHICH IS
DETERMINED BY OTHER, MOSTLY CULTURAL, FACTORS; AND

C. ENVIRONMENTAL PROBABILISM- THE NOTION THAT THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

PROVIDES DIFFERENT CHOICES FOR HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND SOME CHOICES ARE MORE
LIKELY TO OCCUR THAN OTHERS.

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THIS INFORMATION ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN
BEHAVIOR IS VERY IMPORTANT TO URBAN DESIGN. THIS KNOWLEDGE WILL NOT TELL ARCHITECTS,
URBAN DESIGNERS, AND PLANNERS WHAT TO DO. HOWEVER, IT WILL HELP IDENTIFY DESIGN
SITUATIONS THAT SHOULD BE AVOIDED BECAUSE OF CERTAIN PROBABLE EFFECTS ON HUMAN
BEHAVIOR.

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IF WE IMAGINE THE DESIGN OF A COURTYARD ADJACENT TO A RESIDENCE, WE CAN ILLUSTRATE THE

DIFFERENT KINDS OF ROLES DESIGN MIGHT PLAY IN AFFECTING BEHAVIOR, IF OUR COURTYARD WERE
SURROUNDED BY AN 8-FOOT-HIGH FENCE, PEOPLE IN THE COURTYARD COULD NOT SEE OUT, AND
PEOPLE OUTSIDE COULD NOT SEE IN. IF WE REDUCE THE HEIGHT OF THE WALL TO 4 FEET, THEN
PEOPLE COULD EASILY LOOK IN OR OUT. THIS IS DETERMISISM

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WE MIGHT FURTHER IMAGINE THAT THE COURTYARD HAS BEEN BUILT IN A NEIGHBORHOOD WHERE
THERE ARE NO OTHER COURTYARDS, WHERE THE TRADITIONAL HOUSE SIMPLY HAS A YARD AROUND
IT. SINCE THE COURTYARD OF THIS HOUSE IS THERE IT IS POSSIBLE THAT THE RESIDENT WILL USE IT.
THE EXISTENCE OF THE COURTYARD, HOWEVER, IS NO GUARANTEE THAT IT WILL BE USED. THIS IS
POSSIBILISM

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IF WE WERE TO LOCATE THE KITCHEN AS THE ONLY ROOM IMMEDIATELY ADJACENT TO THE
COURTYARD WE MIGHT PREDICT THAT IF THE COURTYARD WERE TO USED AT ALL IT WOULD MOST
PROBABLY BE FOR ACTIVITIES ASSOCIATED WITH THE KITCHEN. EVEN THOUGH THERE IS NOTHING
THAT WOULD DICTATE AN ASSOCIATED USE OF THE SPACE WITH THE KITCHEN, THE RELATIONSHIP
MIGHT SUGGEST A USE THAT WOULD NOT HAVE BEEN APPARENT IF THE ADJACENT ROOM WERE A
BEDROOM. THIS IS PROBABILISM

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IT IS IMPORTANT TO REMEMBER THAT EACH CULTURE HAS ITS OWN SENSE OF SPACE AND TIME, OF
WHAT IS APPROPRIATE AND WHAT IS NOT APPROPRIATE.

WE CAN LOOK AT PEOPLES IN WARMER CLIMATES WHO HAVE ADOPTED THE CONCEPT OF MID-
AFTERNOON BREAK AS A WAY OF AVOIDING THE HEAT. AS A RESULT, THE EVENING IS USED MUCH
MORE INTENSELY FOR SOCIALIZING – AND THE TEMPERATE EVENING CLIMATES SUPPORTIVE OF
SITTING OUTSIDE OR STROLLING.

FOR THE DESIGNER, DETERMINISM, POSSIBILISM, AND PROBABILISM ARE ALL POTENTIAL RESPONSES
TO A DESIGN. SOME ARE MORE LIKELY THAN OTHERS. THE DESIGNER MUST BE CAREFUL TO MATCH
HIS OR HER DESIGN IDEOLOGY WITH THE REALITIES OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR.

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