Process Instrumentation and Control

Chapter 8

FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS

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 Chapter Objectives
Process Instrumentation and Control

End of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Explain the concept of feedback control
2. Explain P, I and D controllers

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Process Instrumentation and Control
Historical Perspective:

1930s – Commercial Three-mode controllers with

proportional, integral and derivative
(PID) feedback control action
1940s – Widespread acceptance of pneumatic
PID controllers
1950s – Electronic counterparts in the market

1960s – Computer applications

1980s – Use of digital hardware

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Process Instrumentation and Control
Introduction
Consider the following blending process (Fig. 8.1).

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 Control system
Process Instrumentation and Control

Control objective:
To keep the tank exit composition x at the
desired setpoint by adjusting w2.
Measurement : Composition Analyzer-
Transmitter (AT)

Feedback controller (AC): Automatic Controller

Final control element: Pneumatic control valve

Current-to-pneumatic (I/P) transducer

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Process Instrumentation and Control
Block Diagram

Figs. 8.2 & 8.3: Flow control system/loop (top) and its
block diagram (bottom).
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Process Instrumentation and Control
Block Diagram

Fig. 11.8: Standard block diagram for a feedback

control system.

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Process Instrumentation and Control

Proportional, Integral and Derivative

THREE MODE CONTROLLER

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Process Instrumentation and Control
Feedback Control Error

In feedback control, the objective is to reduce the

error signal to zero.
Define an error signal, e, by

e(t )  y SP (t )  y m (t ) (6.1)

where y sp = set point

y m = measured value of the controlled variable
(or equivalent signal from transmitter)

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Process Instrumentation and Control

• For proportional control, the controller output is

proportional to the error signal

p(t)  p  K c e(t) (6.2)

where p(t) = controller output

p = bias value (adjustable, manual reset)
Kc = controller gain (dimensionless, adjustable,
tuning)

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Process Instrumentation and Control
Function of proportional term

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Process Instrumentation and Control
Proportional Band, PB:

100%
Definition : PB  (6.3)
Kc

• Applies when Kc is dimensionless

• Small (narrow) PB corresponds to large Kc
• Large (wide) PB corresponds to small Kc

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Process Instrumentation and Control
Proportional controller
In order to derive the transfer function for an ideal
proportional controller, define a deviation variable
as
p (t )  p(t )  p (6.4)
Then (6.2) can be written as
p (t )  K c e(t ) (6.5)
Taking Laplace transform of (6.5) and rearranging
we get P ( s )
 Kc (6.6)
E (s)

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 Remarks
Process Dynamics and Control

• An inherent limitation of proportional controller is

that a steady-state error (offset) occurs after a set-
point change or a sustained disturbance.
• Offset can be eliminated by manually resetting
either the set-point or bias after an offset occurs –
impractical.

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Process Instrumentation and Control
Ideal vs. actual

Ideal controller does not

include physical limits

A controller saturates
when its output reaches a
physical limit, either pmax
or pmin.

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Process Instrumentation and Control
Reverse or Direct Acting Controller
Kc can be made positive or negative

• Reverse-Acting (Kc > 0)

• controller output (p)
increases as input (ym)
decreases
p  p  K c e  p  K c ( ySP  ym )

• Direct-Acting (Kc < 0)

• controller output (p)
increases as input (ym)
increases
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Process Instrumentation and Control
Integral Control
(reset control, floating control)
For integral action, the controller output depends
on the integral of the error signal over time,
1 t
p(t)  p 
I  e(t )dt
0 (6.7)

where  I is an adjustable parameter and referred to

as the integral time constant or reset time, has units
of time.
The transfer P (s) 1
 (6.8)
function: E(s)  I s

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 Integral Control
Process Dynamics and Control

• An important practical advantage: Eliminates offset.

• For the process being controlled to be at steady state, the

controller output p must be constant so that the manipulated
variable is also constant.
• Eq. (6.7) implies that p changes with time unless e(t) = 0.
• This desirable situation occurs unless the controller output
or the final control element saturates.
• The control action by the integral controller is very little
until the error signal has persisted for sometime.
• On the other hand, proportional controller takes immediate
corrective action as soon as an error is detected.

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Process Instrumentation and Control
Function of integral term

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Process Instrumentation and Control
PI Controller
Integral control is used in conjunction with
proportional control as the proportional-integral (PI)
controller:
 1
t

p (t )  p  K c e(t )   e(t )dt  (6.9)
 I 0 

The corresponding transfer function is:

P(s)  1 
 K c 1   (6.10)
E(s)  Is 

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 PI Controller
Process Dynamics and Control

The
  response of the PI controller to a unit step
change in e(t) is shown in Fig.

1/ I - repeats per minute, aka, reset rate.

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Process Instrumentation and Control PI Controller
Disadvantages:
• Produces oscillatory response
• Reset windup

When a sustained error occurs, the integral term becomes

quite large and the controller output eventually saturates –
reset windup or integral windup.
Antireset windup: Temporarily halting the integral action
whenever the control output saturates.
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Process Instrumentation and Control
Reset windup
SP=setpoint
PV=process
variable to
control

Valve
movement

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 Process Instrumentation and Control

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Anti wind-up

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 Derivative control
(Rate action, pre-act, anticipatory control )
Process Dynamics and Control

• Anticipate the future error by considering its rate of

change.
• For ideal derivative action,
de(t )
p (t )  p   D (6.11)
dt
where  D is the derivative time, and has units of time.

As long as the error is constant de/dt = 0, the controller

output is equal to p .

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Process Instrumentation and Control
Derivative control
• Derivative action is never used alone.
• Always used in conjunction with P or PI control.

PD controller has the transfer function

P (s)
 K c 1   D s  (6.12)
E(s)

The derivative control action tends to stabilize the

controlled process.

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Process Instrumentation and Control
PID Controller
PID control algorithm is given by

 1
t
de 
p (t )  p  K c e(t ) 
 I 0 e(t )dt    D dt  (6.13)

Transfer function of an ideal controller (parallel form)

P (s)  1 

 K c 1    D s  (6.14)
E(s)  Is 
Transfer function – actual (Series form)
P(s)   s  1   D s  1 
 K c  I   (6.15)
E(s)  s
 I  D  s  1 
a = [0.05, 0.2] Derivative filter
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Process Instrumentation and Control
ON-OFF controllers
(“two-position” or “bang-bang” controllers)

Ideal controller More practical controller

(Dead band)
• Special case of proportional controller with very high
gain.
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 Typical responses of Feedback
Process Instrumentation and Control

control systems
Consider response of a controlled system after a sustained
disturbance occurs (e.g. step change in load variable)
No control
New steady state is reached
P control
Offset reduced
 

PI control
Offset eliminated
Oscillatory response
 

PID control
Oscillations reduced
Response time reduced

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Process Instrumentation and Control Too small a value of Kc
Sluggish response
Larger deviation

Too large a value of Kc

Exhibit oscillatory or unstable behavior

Intermediate values of Kc is desirable

D
Increasing tends to improve the
response by reducing the maximum
deviation, response time, and degree
of oscillation
D
If is too large, measurement noise
is amplified and the response may
become oscillatory.
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Process Instrumentation and Control

• Increasing t I makes the controller more sluggish.

• Offset will be eliminated for all values of tI.
• For large values of tI, it takes very long time to return to
the set-point.

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Process Instrumentation and Control
Summary

1. Two Position (On-Off):

• Inexpensive
• Extremely simple

2. Proportional:
• Simple
• Inherently stable when properly tuned
• Easy to tune
• Experiences offset at steady state

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Process Instrumentation and Control
3. Proportional + Integral:
• No offset
• Better dynamic response than reset alone
• Possibilities exist for instability due to lag introduced

4. Proportional + Derivative:
• Stable
• Less offset than proportional alone (use of higher gain
possible).
• Faster response time.

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Process Instrumentation and Control

5. Proportional + Integral + Derivative :

• Most complex
• Rapid response
• No offset
• Difficult to tune
• Best control if properly tuned.

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Process Instrumentation and Control
Conclusion

• Concept of feedback control

• P, I, D controller modes
– ON-OFF as a special case of P-controller

• Advantages and disadvantages

• Motivation for additional modes

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