BIOPSYCHOLOGY

 Also known as biological

psychology, refers to the
study of how biological
processes (nervous system,
brain activity and glandular
processes) relate to behavior.
 Donald O. Hebb presented
the first comprehensive
theory of how perceptions,
emotions, thoughts and
memories might be produced
by brain activity.
Functions of the
Nervous System
 The nervous system is a complex combination of cells that
permits us to gain information about what is happening
inside and outside our body and to respond appropriately.

 Three main functions:

 Input – receiving information
 Processing – integrating information with past experiences
 Output – activating or guiding the various mechanisms for the
appropriate action

 Two types of nervous system cells

 Neurons – cells that receive, process and transmit brain signals
 Glial Cells – cells that support the neurons by holding them
together, directing their growth and restoring damage.
The Neuron
 Neurons (a.k.a. nerve cells) are electrically
excitable cells that process and transmit
information through signaling. They connect
to each other to form networks and to permit
interaction.
Types of Neurons
A. Afferent or sensory
neurons – convey
messages from the sense
organs to the brain.

B. Efferent or motor neurons

– relay messages from
the brain to the glands
and muscles.

C. Interneurons – carry
impulses from one neuron
to another.
Components or parts
of a neuron

1. Cell membrane – a semi-

permeable membrane that
surrounds the entire neuron
giving it shape and shielding
the internal fluids known as
the cytoplasm.

2. Dendrites – short, branchlike

fibers that receive signals or
information from the receptors
or from other neurons.
3. Soma (cell body) – the signal
received by the dendrites passes
through the cell body which
contains a nucleus and is involved
in the metabolic or energy
regulation processes of the cell.

4. Axon – long slender projection of

the neuron that conducts signals
away from the neuron’s soma.

5. Terminal buttons – small knobs at

the ends of the branched axon
(axon terminals) which are
involved in transmitting a signal
from one neuron to the next.
6. Myelin sheath – a fatty protein substance that covers
some axons, and its function is to accelerate the
transmission of neural signals.
 About 50% of the axons have myelin sheaths and most
of the long motor neurons in the peripheral nervous
system are myelinated.
 Degeneration of the myelin sheath in the central nervous
system causes multiple sclerosis, a brain disorder
characterized by physical weakness, tremors, visual
distubance and ataxia (loss of motor coordination).
7. Synapse – the microscopic point of contact
between neurons over which signals pass.

 Presynaptic membrane – the membrane on the

side that sends the message.
 Postsynaptic membrane – the membrane on the
receiving side of the synapse.
The Nature of the
Nerve Impulse

 Electrically charged molecules called ions are

found in varying numbers inside and outside of
each neuron.
 Positive ions – potassium (K+) and sodium (Na+)
 Negative ions – chloride (Cl-)

 Resting potential – the electrical charge of a

neuron when it is at rest (-70 millivolts)
 Threshold – the point at which a nerve impulse is
triggered or fired (-50 millivolts).

 Action potential – the point at which the nerve

impulse sweeps down the axon.

 All-or-nothing law – an explanation which states

that an impulse occurs completely or not all.
Neurotransmitters
 These are special
chemicals or substances
that facilitate transmission
of information from one
neuron to another.

 They are stored in tiny

packets called synaptic
vesicles that are located in
the terminal buttons.
 When an electrical nerve impulse reaches the terminal
buttons, it causes chemical substances called
neurotransmitters to be released into the synaptic gap.
 Neurotransmitters then enter the cleft or gap and contact the
postsynaptic membrane.
 Neurotransmitters then bind themselves to receptor sites of
the next neuron to allow the continuation of the transmission
of impulses.
Examples of Neurotransmitters
 Norepinephrine or noradrenaline = involved in memory and
learning; also in arousal and reward (increases heart rate and
muscle contraction)

 Glutamate = involved in learning and memory

 Epinephrine or adrenaline = involved in fight-or-flight response

 Endorphin = inhibits pain and induces relaxation

 Acetylcholine = involved with skeletal muscle movements and

memory

 Dopamine = involved in learning, emotional arousal and

movement.

 Serotonin = involved in modulation of anger, mood, eating, sleep

and sexuality
 The oversupply or undersupply of some
neurotransmitters has been found to account for
certain diseases.

Undersupply of acetylcholine can result to Oversupply of dopamine causes

paralysis or Alzheimer’s disease. schizophrenia.

Undersupply of
dopamine results to
Parkinson’s disease.

Undersupply of
norepinephrine and
serotonin may
produce depression.
Divisions of the
Nervous System

 Two main divisions of the

nervous system
 Central Nervous System
(CNS) – composed of the
brain and spinal cord.

 Peripheral Nervous System

(PNS) – composed of two
subdivisions: the somatic
nervous system and the
autonomic nervous system.
Peripheral Nervous
System (PNS)
 Two subdivisions of the PNS
 Somatic nervous system (SNS) – part of the
PNS that controls voluntary activities. It does so
by carrying messages between the CNS and the
body’s sensory organs and voluntary muscles.

 Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) – part of the

PNS that regulates involuntary or automatic
activities like heartbeat, blinking, digestion
Autonomic Nervous System
(ANS)

 Two subdivisions of the ANS

 Sympathetic nervous system – contains efferent
nerves that stimulate, organize and activate energy
resources when the body needs to deal with danger
or stress. It makes the body prepared for “fight or
flight.” There is a need to return to a homeostasis
(balanced or normal state of functioning).

 Parasympathetic nervous system – contains efferent

nerves that slow down the processes that have been
accelerated by the arousal of the sympathetic
system.
 Central Nervous
System (CNS)

 Two subdivisions of the CNS

 Brain – the command center of the
human body and it has three main
divisions: hindbrain, midbrain and
forebrain

 Spinal cord – bundle of nervous

tissue and support cells that
maintains two functions:
○ It acts like a cable connecting the brain to
the various parts of the body.
○ Reflex arc or reflexes can be carried out
within it without requiring any help from
the brain.
The Human Brain
A. Hindbrain
 The hindbrain, or the brain stem, is located
at the top of the spinal cord and it consists
of the medulla, pons and cerebellum.
 Medulla – controls automatic responses such
as breathing, swallowing and blood circulation.
 Pons – serves as a bridge which links the two
halves of the brain at the hindbrain level. It is
also involved in sleep as well as transferring
signals between the brain and spinal cord.
 Cerebellum – (a.k.a. little brain) plays a role in
some types of memories and coordinates
muscular movements like walking, talking and
posture.
 Hindbrain structures: Damage to the cerebellum may
cause cerebral palsy wherein
medulla, pons and cerebellum there is loss of coordinated
movements.
B. Midbrain
 The midbrain sits on top of
the brainstem and it is
composed basically of
nerve fibers that connect
the higher brain centers to
the lower parts.

 Recticular formation –
complex network of fibers in
the midbrain that is involved
in controlling level of
arousal or alertness. This
passes all the way from the
hindbrain to the forebrain.
C. Forebrain
 The forebrain is the largest and most
complicated part of the brain and it consists
of the cerebral cortex and subcortical
structures.
 Limbic system – group of interrelated structures
(e.g. hippocampus and amygdala) involved in
sense of smell, memory and regulation of drives
and emotions.
 Thalamus – serves as a final “switching station”
or relay center for sensory messages on their
way to the cortex.
 Hypothalamus – master
control center for emotion
and several basic motives.
 Basal ganglia – group of
structures involved in control
of movement; also
influences other complex
behaviors like speech.
 Cerebral cortex or cerebrum
– highest and largest area of
the human brain which is
involved in learning,
language, movement and
sensory processing.
The Cerebral Cortex
 The cerebral cortex of humans is highly convuluted and
large. The increase in size and wrinkling of the cortex is
known as corticalization.

 The cerebral cortex is composed of two hemispheres

(right and left) and are connected by a thick band of
fibers called corpus collosum.

Rat brain

Human brain
 The Four Lobes of the Cerebral
Cortex
 Frontal lobe – involved in the
control of body movements,
decision-making, reasoning,
planning, speech production and
even smell.
 Parietal lobe – involved in major
body sensory areas (touch,
temperature, pain, pressure)
 Temporal lobe – involved in
memory, development of some
aspects of personality, processing
of auditory information and limited
control of sexual behavior.
 Occipital lobe – contains the
primary visual processing areas.
ACTIVITY TRIVIAS
AND QUESTIONS #1
 Is a bigger and heavier brain more
intelligent?
 The average weight of the human brain is 1,350-
1,500 grams. This is the weight of Albert
Einstein’s brain but the brain of Jonathan Swift
(author of Gulliver’s Travels) is 2,000 grams.

 Why are females more emotionally

intelligent than males?

 Why are males more spatially and logically

intelligent than females?
The Case of Phineas Gage
 A railroad foreman who exhibited
self-control, good judgment and
ability to relate well with others.
 Met an accident while trying to
clear a path for the railroad they
were building – a dynamite
exploded and a tamping iron shot
into the air and it entered Gage’s
head right below the left eye and
made an exit through the top of
his skull.
 Survived the accident but his
personality changed greatly –
became short-tempered and
often said inappropriate things.
Plasticity:
The Changing Brain
 Plasticity – the brain’s ability to change and
reorganize in response to stimulation.

 Brain plasticity functions either in positive or

negative direction.
 Positive – neurons are strengthened when stimulated
to form additional synaptic connections. Neurons are
stimulated through social contact, mental activity and
proper nutrition.
 Negative – neurons or synapses weaken over time
when they are neglected. Constant stress and lack of
mental activity and proper nutrition results to weak
neurons.
The effect of environment on mice’s dendrite growth
The Split Brain Theory
 Roger Sperry – a biopsychologist and a Nobel
Prize winner who studied the special abilities of
the cerebral hemispheres.

 Each hemisphere is connected to one half of

the body in a crisscrossed or contralateral
manner. Our left hemisphere controls the right
side of the body while our right hemisphere
controls the left side of the body.

 Separating the two hemispheres (by cutting the

corpus collosum) results in doubling of
consciousness.
Can you live with only half of
your brain?

Cameron Mott’s right hemisphere was Hou Guozhu from China suffered from
removed because of her daily and Rasmussen’s encephalitis so half of his
continuous seizures. brain had to be removed.
 The Endocrine Glands
 The endocrine system is the second great
communication network in the body. It is made up
of ductless glands that secrete hormones which are
sent directly to the bloodstream and they affect
internal activities and behavior.
A. Pituitary Gland
 Also called the “master gland” because it secretes
hormones that control many other glands. It is a pea-
sized structure hanging from the hypothalamus.

 It secretes growth hormones which speeds up physical

development.

 It also secretes other hormones that help regulate the

functioning of the other glands.
 Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) – causes the
adrenal glands to release glucocorticoids that accelerate
the production of energy-producing glucose during stress.
 Hypopituitary dwarfism Giantism caused
caused by inadequate by hyperactivity of the
secretion of growth pituitary gland resulting in
hormones; having normally oversecretion of growth
proportioned but tiny body. hormones.
Acromegaly
caused by late hyperactivity
of the pituitary gland; arms,
hands, feet and facial
bones become enlarged
B. Pineal Gland
 It is located between the two
cerebral hemispheres and it
helps regulate body rhythms
and sleep cycles.

 It releases a hormone called

melatonin in response to daily
variations in light.
 As night falls, melatonin levels
increase.
 As daylight approaches, melatonin
levels fall.
C. Thyroid Glands
 This pair is found in the neck along the windpipe and its
release of hormone is triggered by the pituitary gland.
 It releases thyroxine which regulates metabolism (the rate at
which energy is produced and used by the body). This
hormone can have a considerable effect on one’s personality.
 Hyperthyroidism Hypothyroidism Goiter
Overactive thyroid Underactive thyroid Swelling of the thyroid
results to very fast results to very slow gland which is usually
metabolism; person metabolism; person caused by iodine
tends to be thin, tends to be inactive, deficiency.
excitable, tense and dull, slow and
insomniac overweight
D. Adrenal Glands
 These are located just under the back of the rib
cage and on top of the kidneys.

 Two distinct areas:

 Adrenal medulla – the inner core of the adrenal
glands which is the source of emergency hormones
○ Epinephrine (or adrenaline) – associated with fear
○ Norepinephrine (or noradrenaline) – associated with anger
 Adrenal cortex – the outer bark of the adrenal glands
which releases corticoids which affect salt intake and
reaction to stress. Corticoids are also the source of
sex hormones called adrenal androgens.
 Virilism Premature or
Precocious Puberty
Oversecretion of
adrenal androgens Oversecretion of
causes development adrenal androgens in
of very masculine children; full sexual
characteristics development at a
very unripe age
E. Pancreas
 It is located near the stomach
and the small intestine and it
secretes insulin, a hormone
that regulates the supply and
the use by the body cells of
blood sugar or glucose.

 Diabetes mellitus – deficiency

in insulin; glucose is excreted
in the body without being
utilized.
F. Gonads
 Also known as the sex glands which release
the sex hormones.
 Testes (in men) – produce more androgens like
testosterone
 Ovaries (in women) – produce more progesterones
and estrogens like estradiol

 These hormones affect the appearance of

secondary sex characteristics.

 Testosterone is usually related to

aggressiveness while progesterone prepares
the uterus and the breasts for pregnancy.
G. Thymus Gland
 Also known as the gland of
childhood which is located
within the chest cavity. Its
function is to inhibit the gonads
during the childhood years. It
keeps the child’s sexuality from
premature development.

 It is also a special organ of the

immune system.
ACTIVITY TRIVIAS
AND QUESTIONS #2

 Males have more serotonin level in their brain

compared to females. Does this mean that
males are less prone to having mood
disturbances such as depression than
females?

 Females have larger Wernicke’s and Broca’s

areas (responsible for speech production and
understanding) in the brain. Does this mean
that females are better speakers and listeners
than males?
CAN YOU GUESS THE AGE OF
THIS WOMAN?

The best years of your life

are the ones in which you
decide your problems are
your own. You do not
blame them on your
mother, the ecology, or the
president. You realize that
you control your own
destiny.

Albert Ellis

 
THANK YOU!