Chapter 35 Polymer

Content (According to AL
Syllabus)
• Naturally Occurring Polymers
– Exemplified by proteins,
polysaccharides and DNA.
– Proteins as macromolecules made up
of amino acids via peptide linkages.
Content (According to AL
Syllabus)
• Addition polymerisation
– Formation and uses of addition polyme
rs as exemplified by polyethene (PE), p
olypropene (PP), polystyrene (PS), pol
yvinyl chloride (PVC), polytetrafluoroet
hene (PTFE) and polymethyl methacryl
ate (PMMA).
Content (According to AL
Syllabus)
• Condensation polymerisation
– Formation and uses of polyamides and
polyesters as exemplified by nylon,
Kevlar, Dacron and urea-methanal.
Content (According to AL
Syllabus)
• Effect of structure on properties such
as density, hardness, rigidity, elastici
ty and biodegradability as exemplifie
d by
– (i) high density polyethene and low den
sity polyethene,
– (ii) nylon and Kevlar,
– (iii) vulcanisation of polymers, and
– (iv) biodegradable plastics.
Introduction
• In 1953, Hermann Staudinger formul
ated a macromolecular structure for
rubber based on the repeating unit
2-methylbuta-1,3-diene
Introduction
• Polymers are compounds which consist
of very large molecules formed by
repeated joining of many small molecules

• Polymerization is the process of joining

together many small molecules
repeatedly to form very large molecules

• Monomers are compounds that join

together repeatedly to form polymer in
polymerization
Introduction
• The most important naturally occurri
ng polymers are:
– Proteins
– Polysaccharides (e.g. cellulose, starc
h)
– Nucleic acids (e.g. DNA, RNA)
– Rubber
Introduction
• Synthetic polymers are produced
commercially on a very large scale
• have a wide range of properties and
uses
• Plastics are all synthetic polymers
Introduction
• Synthetic polymers can be made fro
m monomers by two basic polymeris
ation processes:
– addition polymerisation which produce
s addition polymers
– condensation polymerisation which pr
oduces condensation polymers
Naturally
Occurring
Polymers
Amino acids and protein
• Amino acid are bifunctional compou
nds containing both the amino (-NH
2) and carboxylic (-COOH) groups.
Stereochemistry of Amino
Acids
• All amino acids except aminoethanoi
c acid contain an asymmetric atom a
nd exhibit optical isomerism.
• Example: Alanine
• They are optical isomers, but optical
inactive, since they are racemic mixt
ure.
• Laboratory synthesized amino acids
are ONLY optically inactive because
of the formation of race mixture.
 Physical properties of Amin
o Acids
• The dipole moments of the amino acids are
very large. For example,

+
NH3CH2COO- CH3CH2COOH CH3(CH2)2CH2NH2

Dipole 14D 1.7D 1.4D

Moment Ionic Compound Acid Base
• In fact, in the solid state and in soluti
on, amino cids exist as internal ionic
salts, called Zwitterions.
• So,
• Amino acids are high melting point s
olids.
– e.g. Glycine melts at 235℃
• They are very soluble in water, but t
hey only dissolove slightly in organic
solvents.
• They have a very large dipole mome
nt.
Chemical properties of Ami
no Acids
• At some intermediate pH value, a di
polar (zwitterions) form is produced.

The hydrogen ion from the carboxyl g

roup is trasnsferred to the basic amino
group within the molecule.

+ OH + OH
H3N – CH – COOH H3N – CH – COO H2N – CH – COO
| H+ | H+ |
R R R
Chemical properties of Ami
no Acids
• The existence of the zwitterionic for
m can be explained in terms of acid-
base theory:
• –NH2 is a stronger base than –CO
O-
• –COOH is a stronger acid than –N
H3+
Peptides, Polypeptides and
protein
• Dipeptide
• The (-NH2) group of one amino acid ca
n react with the (-COOH) group of anot
her to form an amide.
• The resultion molecule is a dimmer co
ntaining two amino acid units which is
describes as a dipeptide.
• In the process, the two amino acid mol
ecules are joined by the condensation
reaction. A water molecule is eliminate
d.
• Amino acids are linked together by peptide linkag
e.
Polypeptide
• Amino acids undergo condensation
polymerization to form long-chain pol
yamide molecules.
 dipeptide

Further
reaction
of each
end

Polypeptide/protein

• If n< about 50, the product is a polypeptide.

• If n> about 50, the product is a protein.
Structure of proteins
• Protein structure is describe at 4 lev
els: 1∘, 2∘, 3∘ & quaternary.
• Being polyamides, both proteins and nylon can be hydrolysed an
d are thus broken down to their constituent amino acids.
• For example,

Polypeptide

Dipeptide

Amino acids
• The peptide linkages in a protein mol
ecule can be broken by hydrolysis u
sing mineral acids or some enzymes
.
• On complete hydrolysis, the protein i
s broken down into amino acids. By
analyzing the resulting amino acids,
the composition of the protein molec
ule may be deduced.
Carbohydrates
• Sugar, starch and cellulose are carbohydrates. C
arbohydrates are important in the diet as a sourc
e of energy. They are compounds containing car
bon, hydrogen and oxygen with the general form
ula CxHyOz.
• Carbohydrates may be divided into three groups,
– Monosaccharides
– Disaccharides
– Polysaccharides
• The simplest carbohydrates are the sugars. (gluc
ose, fructose and ribose)
Monosaccharides
• The monosaccharides consist of a single
polyhydroxyaldehyde or polyhydroxyketon
e.
• Monosaccharides are a group of sweet, s
oluble crystalline molecules with relatively
low molecular masses
• Cannot be hydrolyzed into simpler compo
unds
• The monosaccharides commonly found in
food have the general formula C6H12O6
• Each monosaccharides molecule co
ntains one carbonyl group. All the ot
her carbon atoms are bonded to hyd
roxyl groups. There are aldose and k
etose, for which the carbonyl group i
s and is NOT terminal respectively.
aldehyde

ketone
Open chain and ring structu
res of glucose and fructose
• Glucose can exist in acyclic and cyclic forms:
0.02%

36% 64%
• Glucose contains an aldehyde group
in its acyclic form. Glucose is an ald
ohexose
• Most of the reactions of glucose in a
queous solutions are due to presen
ce of the free aldehyde group of t
he acyclic form.These reactions inc
lude its reducing action
• Fructose can exist as acyclic form, a
s well as cyclic forms of 6-membere
d rings and 5-membered rings
• Fructose contains a keto group in its
acyclic form
 fructose is an ketohexose
• Most of the reactions of fructose in a
queous solutions are due to:
 presence of the free keto group o
f the acyclic form
Disaccharides
• Disaccharides are sweet, soluble an
d crystalline.
• They have the general formula: C12
H22O11
• Disaccharides can be formed from th
e condensation reaction of two mono
saccharide molecules a water molec
ule is eliminated
• Common disaccharides include Suc
rose (Source: sugar cane), Maltose
(Source: malt) and Lactose (Source
: milk)
Glycosidic Linkage in Carbo
hydrates
• Common disaccharides are formed from t
he condensation reaction between two m
onosaccharide molecules and a water mo
lecule is eliminated
• The bond formed between two monosacc
harides is called a glycosidic linkage
• A sucrose molecule is formed by the cond
ensation reaction of a glucose molecule a
nd a fructose molecule
• A maltose molecule is formed by the cond
ensation reaction of two glucose molecule
s
Polysaccharides
• Polysaccharides are polymers of monosa
ccharides
• General formula: (C6H10O5)n where n is
a large number (up to thousands)
• Examples of polysaccharides: starch and
cellulose
• Starch is commonly found in rice, bread a
nd potatoes
• Cellulose is found in fruits, vegetables, co
tton and wood
• The condensation process can be repeated to bu
ild up giant molecules of polysaccharides
• e.g. Starch

• Cellulose
• Adjacent chains of cellulose molecules are linked
up by hydrogen bonds. These cellulose chains in
tertwine into fibrils of considerable strength.
DNA as Nucleic acid
• Nucleic acids are the molecules that
preserve hereditary information, tran
scribe and translate it in a way that a
llows the synthesis of all the various
proteins of a cell
• Nucleic acid molecules are long poly
mers of small monomeric units calle
d nucleotides.
• The monomers of nucleic acids, call
ed nucleotides, are formed from the f
ollowing units:
• A phosphate unit
• A five carbon sugar
• A nitrogen – containing organic bas
e.
• DNA is the nucleic acid that most ge
nes are made of
• DNAs have four different kinds of nu
cleotides as the building blocks
• All the four kinds of nucleotides have
deoxyribose as their sugar compone
nt
• They differ in their nitrogen-containin
g bases
• Adenine (A) and guanine (G)
• have double-ring structures
• known as purines
• Cytosine (C) and thymine (T)
• have single-ring structures
• known as pyrimidines
Formation of the nucleotide
of a DNA molecule
• The nucleotides within a DNA
molecule are joined together through
condensation reactions between the
sugar of a nucleotide and the
phosphate group of the next
nucleotide in the sequence long
chain (i.e. a polymer) of alternating
sugar and phosphate groups is
formed
• Two hydrogen bonds are for
med between A in one chain
and T in the other
• Three hydrogen bonds are f
ormed between G in one ch
ain and C in the other
• Hydrogen bonding between
complementary base pairs.
The hydrogen bonds are res
ponsible for formation of the
double stranded helical struc
ture of DNA.
Synthetic
Polymers
Addition Polymers
Formation and Uses of Addition Polymer
• Addition polymerization is a chemical
process in which monomer molecules
are joined together to form a polymer
without elimination of small molecules.
• The resulting polymer will therefore ha
ve the same percentage composition a
s the reactant monomers.
1. Polyethene, or Polyethyle
ne [PE]
• Polyethene has many useful properties:
• – it is easily moulded;
• – it is an excellent electrical insulator;
• – it does not corrode;
• – it is tough;
• – it is not affected by the weather;
• – it is durable.
• Ethene is the monomer that is used t
o synthesize polyethene
• Depending on the manufacturing co
nditions, two kinds of polyethene can
be made
• low density polyethene (LDPE)
• Molecular mass between 50 000 and
3 000 000
• Light, flexible
• Low melting point
• Used to make soft items (e.g. wash
bottles, plastic bags and food wraps)
• high density polyethene (HDPE)
• Molecular mass up to 3 000 000
• Tougher
• Higher melting point
• Used to make more rigid items
(e.g. milk bottles and water buckets)
• Polyethene is a thermoplastic
• It softens at a high temperature
• Uses of polyethene
– Insulate telephone line
– Its unique electrical properties were essen
tial during the development of radar.
– Plastic bags
– It used in supermarket for packing various
food product.
– milk bottles and water buckets
– Hard and rigid, not poisonous
Mechanism for the addition
polymerization: Free Radica
l Addition Polymerization of
Ethene
• The reaction mechanism consists
of three stages:
• chain initiation
• chain propagation
• chain termination
• Chain initiation

diacyl peroxide molecule as a initiator

• Chain propagation
• Chain termination steps

• Addition polymers formed from these substituted ethe

nes (H2C=CHX) have a range of properties predictable
based on the structure of –X (non polar substituent). –
X group like –CH3 or –C6H5 are soluble in organic sol
vents like acetone or propanone.
2. Polypropene (PP)
• With the use of Ziegler-Natta catalys
t, propene can be polymerized to pol
ypropene
• Polypropene can exist in different co
nfigurations depending upon the orie
ntation of the methyl groups in the p
olymer.
• The properties of polypropene can b
e modified by adjusting the manufact
uring conditions
• In isotactic polypropene, all methyl g
roups are on the same side of the ca
rbon chain.
• Using Ziegler Natta Catalyst, the met
hyl groups all arrganged on one side
of the carbon chain.
• In atactic polypropene the methyl groups
are randomly arranged

Isotactic Polypropene Atactic polypropene

More symmetrical Less symmetrical
Molecules pack together closely. Poor packing
High melting point Low melting point
Greater strength sticky
• It is more rigid than HDPE and used for m
oulded furniture
• High mechanical strength and strong resi
stance to abrasion. It is used for making c
rates, kitchenware and food containers
• Spun into fibres for making ropes and car
pets especially useful for making athletic
wear. They do not absorb water from swe
ating as cotton does
3. Polystyrene (PS)
• Styrene is made from the reaction of
benzene with ethane, followed by de
hydrogenation.
• The styrene produced is polymerize
d by a free radical mechanism into p
olystyrene at 85 – 100°C using dibe
nzoyl peroxide as the initiator
• Polystyrene is transparent, brittle and che
mically inert. It used to make toys, specim
en, containers and cassette cases
• By heating polystyrene with a foaming ag
ent, expanded polystyrene can be m
ade.
• Expanded polystyrene is extremely light,
white solid foam. It mainly used to make li
ght-weight ceiling tiles in buildings, and fo
od boxes and shock absorbers for packag
ing
4. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

• PVC is produced by addition polyme

rization of the choroethene monomer
s in the presence of a peroxide catal
yst (e.g. hydrogen peroxide at a
bout 60°C)
 (a) (b)

• Presence of the polar C – Cl bond is considerable

• dipole-dipole interactions exist between the polymer chains
makes PVC a fairly strong material
• The large size of Cl atom means the chains cannot easily
be moved over one another. This result in the polymer bei
ng rigid and brittle.
• PVC is hard and brittle and used to make pipes and bottles
• When plasticizers are added, the eff
ectiveness of the dipole- dipole i
nteractions is reduced. PVC become
s more flexible
• Used to make shower curtains, rainc
oats and artificial leather
• Used as the insulating coating of ele
ctrical wires
• Despite its extensive uses, one problem with the use of PV
C is its disposal.
• PVC is non-biodegradable, normally not disposed of by lan
d-filling.
• Incineration of PVC produces HCl (g)
• This HCl (g) produced is usually absorbed by the wet scru
bber filled with an alkali such as Na2CO3 (aq).
• Also, monomer of PVC is a carcinogen.
5. Polytetrafluoroethene (P
TFE)
• PTFE is produced through addition p
olymerization of the tetrafluoroethen
e monomers under high pressure an
d in the presence of a catalyst
• C—F bonds are exceptionally strong & resistant t
o heat and chemicals
• PTFE has a relatively high melting point and is c
hemically inert
• Its non-stick properties make it an ideal material f
or the coating of frying pans
 Since fluorine is highly electronegative atom a
n evenly distributed layer of negative charge is d
eveloped on the surface of PTFE
  Layers of negative F atoms repel almost all ot
her materials
  Thus preventing them from adhering to PTFE
  PTFE has very slippery surface
• Whatever the technique, there
is still the chance of Teflon pee
ling off from cooking ware after
extended use, because
 Teflon decompose at high te
mperature
 Its coefficient of expsion is di
fferent from that of the material
of the cooking surface
A teflon-coated
frying pan
6. Polymethyl Methacrylate
(Perspex) (PMMA)
• PMMA is formed by the free radical
addition polymerization of methyl me
thacrylate in the presence of an orga
nic peroxide at about 60°C
• PMMA is a dense, transparent and tough
solid makes it a good material for making
safety goggles, advertising sign boards a
nd vehicle light protectors
• However, it has poor scratching resistanc
e and can be dissolved by a number of or
ganic solvents.
Condensation Polymers
• Formation and Uses of Condensat
ion Polymer
• Condensation polymerization is a ch
emical process in which monomer m
olecules are joined together to form
a polymer with elimination of small m
olecules such as water, ammonia an
d hydrogen chloride
• Each monomer molecule must have
at least two functional groups
1. Polyamide
• 1. Nylon
• Nylon 6,6

faster
• When a solution of hexane-1,6-dioyl dichl
oride in hexane is poured gently onto a so
lution of 1,6-diaminohexane in water, a w
hite film of nylon is formed at the interface
between the two layers. The film can be p
ulled up as a string and wound onto a stirr
ing rod.

Preparation of
nylon-6,6 in the
laboratory
• Used for making carpets, thread, cor
ds and various kinds of clothing from
stockings to jackets
• Advantages:
• drips dry easily
• not easily attacked by insects
• resists creasing
• There are interchain hydrogen bond so Nylon6, 10 is expe
cted to have a lower tensile strength than nylon6,6. There i
s decrease in the number of hydrogen bond per unit length
, as a result of the longer carbon chain in nylon 6,10
2. Kevlar
• Aramid is a synthetic poly amide
• Aliphatic hydrocarbon unit within the polm
er chain has been replaced by an aromati
c unit in Aramid
• Kevlar is an aromatic polyamide
• The structure of Kevlar is similar to nylon-
6,6
• The two monomers of Kevlar are benzen
e-1,4-dicarboxylic acid and
1,4-diaminobenzene
• Both monomers are bifunctional
• In Kevlar, the starting material was
modified to create straighter chains i
n the polymer. A polyamide was pro
duced with the heat resistance of as
bestos. Strength was much greater t
han steel.
• In Kevlar the aliphatic hydrocarbon chain
parts of the poly amide are replaced by b
enzene rings. These parts of the polymer
chain make the chains inflexible due to de
localized bonding.
• Some of this delocalization extends beyo
nd the benzene rings and onto part of the
amide link resulting in long, rigid molecule
s that do not easily flex or twist.
• This extended delocalization also lea
ds to enhanced intermolecular hydro
gen bonging between the adjacent K
evlay polymer chains.
• This hydrogen bonding network caus
es the chains to interlock each other,
forming a sheet structure.
• All the C = O and – N – H groups in t
he polymer chains are on opposite si
des. This makes the chains highly sy
mmetrical. The regular structure of t
he polymer chains allows them to int
erlock with each other.
 (b)

(a)
• Applications: (c)
(a) Kevlar is an unusual polymer with fire resistant properties and also grea
t strength. It is found in the crash helmets of Formula I racing drivers as
well as in the suits of racing motorcyclists.
(b) The hull of this offshore racing craft is also reinforced with Kevlar.
(c) Kevlar is used in making bullet proof vests. A more recent innovation is
to use carbonanotubes to make fibres for these bullet proof vests. These
new bullet proof vests can be made 30 % lighter, but 1.5 times more bul
let resistant than conventional Kevlar vests.
2. Dacron
• Formed by repeated condensation r
eactions of benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic
acid (also called terephthalic acid) a
nd ethane-1,2-diol (also called ethyle
ne glycol)
• in the presence of a catalyst and at a
low pressure and moderate temperat
ure (about 250°C)
• The two monomers of Dacron are:

• The polymerization begins with the f

ormation of an ester
• A water molecule is eliminated
• Due to polarization of the carbonyl gr
oups C=O, Dacron chains are cross-
linked by strong dipole-dipole attracti
ons

   
   
   
• Properties of Dacron:
– High tensile strength
– High resistance to stretching
– Low absorption of moisture
• Garments made of Dacron:
– are tough
– can resist wrinkling
– can be washed and dried easily and quickly
• Excellent for making trousers and skirts, s
heets and boat sails
• Can be used alone or blended with cotton
to make it absorb sweat better
3. Urea-methanal
• Produced by the condensation polymeriza
tion of urea and methanal under heat and
pressure
• When an urea molecule joins up with a m
ethanal molecule, water molecule is elimi
nated
• In the presence of excess methanal, furth
er condensation reactions between the po
lymer chains and methanal occur.Cross-li
nkages between the polymer chains are f
ormed. A rigid structure of urea-methanal
is produced
Formation of
cross linkages

One polymer
chain
Another polymer
chain
• Urea-methanal is a thermosetting pl
astic and cannot be softened or melt
ed again by heating once they have
been set hard
• Excellent electrical insulator
• Resistant to chemical attack
Effect of Structure on
Properties of Polymers
Effect of Structure on Prop
erties of Polymers
• Polymers are long-chain giant molecules
• The final form and the properties of the polymers
depend on how these long polymer chains are p
acked together
• If the polymer chains do not have a specific arra
ngement but are loosely packed together the pol
ymer is said to be amorphous
• Amorphous polymers are generally transparent, f
lexible and less dense
• When the polymer chains are regularly packed to
gether, the polymer is said to be crystalline
• Polymers with a high degree of crystallinity are translucent
or opaque, harder and denser
• The attractive forces holding polymer chains together also
affect the properties of polymers
• Polymer chains containing carbon and hydrogen atoms onl
y are held together by weak van der Waals’ force
– slow melting points
– low mechanical strength
• If polymer chains are held together by stronger van der Wa
als’ forces or hydrogen bonds, the mechanical stren
gth of the polymers would be stronger
• If cross-linkages are present between polymer chains,
the polymers would be mechanically stronger, more e
lastic or more rigid ,depending on the extent of cross- linka
ges in the polymer
Low Density Polyethene an
d High Density Polyethene
High Density Polyethene

• When Ziegler-Natta catalysts are used, th

e polymer chains produced are long mole
cules with very little branching. The polym
er chains can pack closely together into a
largely crystalline structure
• Thus, the polymer has a higher density
• Compared with LDPE,
HDPE
– is harder and stiffer
– has a higher melting p
oint
– has greater tensile stre
ngth
– has strong resistance t
o chemical attack
– has low permeability to
gases
• blow-molded objects: bottles for milk
, soft drinks, shampoos, bleaches an
d so on
Low Density Polyethene
• When ethene is polymerized at 200°C and 1000
atm using peroxide as the catalyst, low density p
olyethene (LDPE) is made
• Under these reaction conditions, highly branched
polymer chains are formed
• The branches prevent the polymer chains from g
etting close to each other. The polymer chains d
o not pack together well and creates a signific
ant proportion of amorphous regions in the struc
ture
• Thus, the polyethene made has a low density
• Low density polyethene is a
– Waxy
– Semirigid
– Translucent material
– Low melting point
Vulcanization of Polymers

• Natural rubber is a polymer of the m

onomer
2-methylbuta-1,3-diene (isoprene)

2-Methylbuta-1,3-diene
• Poly(2-methylbuta-1,3-diene) or poly
isoprene can exist in two isomeric fo
rms
• Natural rubber is the cis-form

Part of a polymer chain of natural rubber

• Natural rubber is not a useful polymer bec
ause it is too soft and too chemically react
ive. The long chain molecules can be coil
ed twisted and interwined with one anothe
r

• Vulcanization of natural rubber is the che

mical process that confers cross-linkage a
mong the polymer chains of rubber, turnin
g natural rubber into a flexible elastic mat
erial.
• In the process of vulcanization,1–3 % by
mass of sulphur is added to natural rubb
er and the mixture is heated
• Short chains of sulphur atoms (i.e. cross-li
nkages) are formed between the polymer
chains
• The sulphur changes rubber into a thermo
setting polymer by cross linking the polym
er chains through reaction at some of the
double bonds as shown:
• This makes the rubber harder and re
duces its susceptibility to oxidation o
r other chemical attrack.
• When vulcanized rubber gets hot,the
polymer chains cannot slip across o
ne another since they are still held to
gether by short chains of sulphur ato
ms
• That is why vulcanized rubber does
not melt when heated and does not
become brittle when cooled
• The extent of the cross-linkages formed b
etween the polymer chains affects the pro
perties of vulcanized rubber
• If the rubber has few cross-linkages, the r
ubber is softer, more flexible and mor
e elastic
• If the rubber has many cross-linkages, it i
s stiffer, less flexible and less elastic
• Car tyres are made of vulcanized ru
bber
• Because of the presence of cross-lin
kages among the polymer chains, th
e rubber does not melt when it gets
hot
• That is the reason why car tyres do
not melt when drivers drive really fas
t
Car tyres are made of
vulcanized rubber
Degradable Plastics

• Natural polymers (e.g. wood and paper) are biod

egradable Micro-organisms in water and in the so
il use them as food
• Synthetic polymers (e.g. plastics) are non-biodegr
adable can remain in the environment for a very l
ong time
• Nowadays, plastic waste constitutes about 7 % of
household waste
• In Hong Kong, plastic waste is buried in landfill sit
es
• it remains unchanged for decades
• more and more landfill sites have to be found
• Several types of degradable plastics:
– biopolymers
– photodegradable plastics
– synthetic biodegradable plastics
1. Biopolymers
• Polymers made by living micro-organisms
(e.g. paracoccus, bacillus and spirullum)
• e.g. The biopolymer poly(3-hydroxyb
utanoic acid) (PHB) is made by certain ba
cteria from glucose
• When PHB is disposed, the micro-orga
nisms found in the soil and natural wa
ter sources are able to break it down withi
n 9 months
• However, PHB is 15 times more expensiv
e than polyethene
(a) Paracoccus (b) Bacillus

(c) Spirullum
2. Photodegradable Plastic
s
• Photodegradable plastics have light-
sensitive functional groups (e.g. carb
onyl groups) incorporated into their p
olymer chains
• These groups will absorb sunlight us
e the energy to break the chemical b
onds in the polymer to form small fra
gments
This plastic bag is made of
photodegradable plastic
3. Synthetic Biodegradable
Plastics
• Made by incorporating starch or cell
ulose into the polymers during produ
ction
• Micro-organisms consume starch or
cellulose and the plastics are broken
down into small pieces
• The very small pieces left have a lar
ge surface area greatly speeds up th
eir biodegradation
• Drawbacks of this method:
– the products of biodegradation may cause water
pollution
– the rate of biodegradation is still too low for the la
rge quantity of plastic waste generated
– They are much more expensive than ordinary ma
terials.
– When buried in landfill, they will not be exposed t
o sunlight light and may therefore remain unchan
ged for many years.
– Their long term effects on the environment are u
nknown of any residues.
– They may encourage a ‘throwaway is OK’ culture
.
– They interfere with the present recycle program.
END