Fabric Science for

Apparels - II
B.F. TECH – 2 N D SEMESTER
3HRS PER WEEK
 Course Content
Hrs Content
2 Weft Knitting
2 Overview of types of knitting machines
1 Yarn characteristics for knitting
2 Graphical Presentation of knit structures
2 Warp Knitting
1 Knitted strcutures
1 Non-woven technology
1 Web formation techniques
2 Fabric Testing
1 Woven and Knitted Fabric defects
 Course Content
Hrs Content
2 Pretreatment processes
1 Dyeing
1 Stages of dyeing
1 Dyeing machineries
3 Dyes
1 Defects in dyeing
6 Printing
1 Defects in Printing
Industrial visit
Pre-treatment Processes
Objective – To prepare the material for Processes
subsequent dyeing and finishing processes ◦ Shearing
◦ Singeing
Achieved by
◦ Removing both natural and added impurities ◦ Desizing
that interfere with subsequent dyeing and ◦ Scouring
printing ◦ Bleaching
◦ Improve the ability of the fibres to absorb ◦ Mercerization/ liquid ammonia
moisture, chemicals and dyes
◦ Carbonization of wool
◦ Impart a clear, bright and white surface
◦ Degumming of silk
especially for printing and dyeing of pastel
shades
Shearing
Cutting the loose strands of fibres from either
surface of a fabric
Cutting carried out by using sharp edged razor
or scissors
Cutting of designs into pile fabrics also
possible my manipulating the shearing
Simplest way to reduce the pilling tendency
Precautions need to be taken to avoid the
blades scratching the surface of the fabric –
will cause defects in subsequent dyeing
Shearing
Singeing
Aim: Burning off the protruding fibres from the fabric surface
Reasons for carrying out singeing
◦ Improves the end use and wearing properties of textiles
◦ Results in a clean surface which allows the structure of the fabric to be more clear
◦ Reduced fogginess caused by differing reflection of light by the projecting fibre
◦ Dyed fabrics appear brighter
◦ Reduced pilling tendency especially in blended fabrics containing synthetic fibres
◦ Reduced soiling tendency
◦ Essential for printing of fine intricate patterns
◦ Facilitation and speeding up of the desizing process
Singeing
Uneven singeing can cause
◦ streaky dyeing
◦ Bubbles when the fabric is finished
Specky dyeing of synthetic-blended fabrics
◦ For cotton fabric – singeing of gray fabric
◦ For synthetic blended fabrics – singeing done
after dyeing
Colour loss/ darkening of shade: disperse dyes
of high sublimation fastness
Thermal damage to temperature sensitive
fibres – plasticizing of fabric
Heat-bars caused by stop-offs
Creasing causing streaky dyeing
Singeing
For cotton/ regenerated cellulosic
◦ singeing of gray fabric is the normal practice
◦ Leads to slight yellowing
◦ Removed by subsequent bleaching
◦ Economical – additional washing and drying
◦ Can be singed very strongly with maximum
burner intensity
For wool
◦ Poor combustion properties
◦ Very sensitive to temperature
◦ Not subjected to intense flame
◦ Flame not allowed to penetrate the fabric
Singeing
Synthetics: Polyester enjoys greatest
significance
◦ Melts at 280-290oC, burns at 500oC
◦ Flame singeing with powerful flame used
◦ Also overcomes the problem of oligomers
Blended fibre fabrics
◦ Selection of singeing conditions are to be
selected depending on the sensitiveness of the
kind of the fibres in the blend
◦ E.g. acetate/viscose blend, polyester/wool blend
Singeing
Machines
◦ Direct & Indirect type

Direct singeing: fabric comes in direct contact with the source of heat
Indirect singeing: No flame contact, uniform singeing, heat retention zone, singeing by means of
heat radiation
Direct singeing: Plate, Roller or Gas
Gas singeing: convenient, economical, effective that other methods and well accepted
commercially
Singeing – Gas Singeing
Machine consists of one or more burners with
a adjustable narrow slit
Continuous flat or vertical flames produced by
a mixture of compressed air and gas
Cloth drawn over the flame at high speed
Flame impinges on the fabric surface and
burns the protruding fibres
Fibre ends present in the interstices also
burned
Singed fabric then passes between a pair of
draw rollers or through a nip of mangle
revolving above a water box
All sparks get extinguished
Singeing
Singeing – Burner Positions
Tangential Singeing
◦ Flame touched the fabric tangentially
◦ Only protruding fibres are burned off
◦ Hardly any contact of the flame with the fabric
◦ Suitable for singeing light weight and sensitive fabrics

Singeing onto water cooled rollers

◦ Flame hits the fabric at a right angle
◦ Fabric lies flat on the off-side on a water covered roller
◦ Steam/air cushion formed inside the fabric structure
◦ Resist any penetration of the flame into the fabric
◦ Fabric remains relatively cooled
◦ Suitable for synthetic and synthetic-blended fibre fabrics
Singeing – Burner Positions
Singeing onto the free guided position
◦ Flame passes through the fabric
◦ Protruding fibres present in the interstices also
get good singeing
◦ Suitable for natural and regenerated fibres
Singeing – Indirect Singeing
Temperature reaches the fabric via heat stores
Mainly infra-red radiation is used
Any variations arising from the burners are
absorbed and are compensated
Avoids singeing streaks and related faults
Singeing – Knitted Fabrics
Singeing machine for circular knitted fabric
differs from the those for woven fabrics in
terms of fabric guidance and support
Proper opening of the tubular fabric is the real
problem
Distance between the burner and the fabric
constant at all points
Burner should be so designed so as to provide
uniform flame intensity over the entire tube
circumference
Singeing – Knitted Fabrics
Essential components of the fabric guidance
system include turntable, detwister and a
circular expander
Turntable and detwister permits feeding of a
crease free fabric to the singeing zone
Expander applies tension in a manner that
whole of the fabric is exposed to the full widt
of the flame in each segments
Burner is a eight swivelling ring shaped with
double jet burners
Desizing
Sizing
About 75% of the sizing agents used are based
on starch and its derivatives
Ready availability and low cost
Starch, hydroxyethyl starch, carboxymethyl
cellulose (CMC), natural gums etc.
Other size ingredients – protein based glue,
gelatin
Most commonly used on cotton and viscose
Synthetic fibres
◦ Stronger than cotton, able to withstand the
tensions of weaving
◦ Abrasion resistance and static generation
problem
Continuous film formation and adhesion of the
sizing material on the surface of the yarn also
difficult
Sizing
Development of synthetic polymer based
sizes: polyvinyl alcohol, polyacrylic acid,
polyester, CMC, plasticized vinyl acetate,
methyl acrylate polymers
Usually one type of size is inadequate
Different sizing agents combined
Desirable properties – good adhesion, film
flexibility, viscosity, compatibility with salts in
hard water, abrasion resistance, washing out
properties, recycling, low add-on high
efficiency, pollution aspects
Solvent-based sizes
 Desizing

Desizing
Methods

Hydrolytic Oxidative
methods Methods

Rot Acid Enzymatic

Chlorine Chlorite Bromite Others
Steeping Steeping desizing
Acid Desizing
Treatment with dilute sulphuric acid (5-10gpl)
at about 40oC for 3-4h
Starch gets broken down into water soluble
segments
Possibility of damage to cotton cellulose if
concentration more than 10gpl and
temperature above 50oC
Hydrolysis of starch an exothermic process
Localized drying may occur on parts of the
fabric which are exposed to air, concentration
may rise beyond 10gpl
Covered with gunny bags
Process especially suitable for varieties of
cotton containing high concentration of metal
◦ Metal gets converted into soluble salts
A normal washing treatment to remove
solubilized starch
 Enzymatic Desizing
Enzymes – complex, high molecular weight proteins
Classification

Desizing Enzymes

Animal based e.g. Viveral, novofermosol,

degomma (slaughter house), waste Vegetable
pancreas, clotted blood, liver

Malt extract e.g. diastofor,

Bacterial e.g. rapidase,
diastase, gabahit,
biolase, arcy, taka
maltoferment, maltostase
Enzymatic Desizing
Fabric passed through hot water kept at 50-
60oC and squeezed to 100% pick-up
Passed through a bath of 0.5-2% malt extract
maintained at 50-60oC
Wetting agent also added to aid in the
penetration of the enzyme into the size film
Pre-impregnation important to avoid cooling
of the enzyme bath and to ensure that the
temperature is maintained for a longer time
Enzyme most active in the 50-60oC
temperature range
Sensitivity towards the changes in pH and
temperature from optimum
Require close control on both these
parameters
Newer enzymes less sensitive and designed to
operate at higher temperature near boil
Hot water wash subsequent to Desizing
completes the process
 Enzymatic Desizing
Enzyme Concentration (gpl) pH Temperature
Malt Diastase 3 – 20 4.5 – 5.5 50 – 60
Pancreative Diastase 1–3 6.8 – 7.5 50 – 60
Bacterial Diastase 0.5 – 1 6.5 – 7.5 60 – 70
Desizing of synthetic fibre
fabrics and their blend with
cellulose
For PVA based sizes
◦ Light scouring with non-ionic detergent (3-5gpl)
at 95-100oC for 20-30min
For Polyester based sizes
◦ Anionic and non-ionic detergent (2-3gpl), sodium
hydroxide (1-2gpl) at 80-95oC for 20-30min
For polyacrylic based sizes
◦ Soluble in mildly acidic or alkaline solutions
Polyester/cotton blended fabrics
◦ Acrylic copolymer – mild alkaline scour
◦ PVA or CMC – hot water wash
◦ Mixture of starch and emulsifying wax –
enzymatic desizing followed by alkaline scour
◦ Gelatin and dextrin – readily water soluble
◦ Casein and some other protein based products –
proteolytic enzymes
Desizing of synthetic fibre
fabrics and their blend with
cellulose
Nylon Regenerated Celluloses
◦ Sizing agents – PVA, Gelatin, Casein or variety of ◦ Difficulty in desizing as rayon swells to a great
vegetable and mineral oils extent leading to poor penetration of enzyme
◦ Extended desizing time and increased
concentration of chemicals/enzymes
Scouring
Scouring of Cotton
Objectives
◦ Removal of natural or added impurities
◦ Provide a cleaner and absorbent base for the
subsequent dyeing, printing and finishing

Impurities in cotton and their removal

◦ Fats and waxes – removed by the action of alkali and
detergents, in extreme cases by the use of solvents
and surfactant mixtures
◦ Pectins – solubilized by the action of alkali
◦ Mineral acids – by producing more soluble salts by
demineralization or by the use of sequestering agents
◦ Amino acids or proteins – degraded and solubilized
by producing corresponding sodium salt
◦ Lubricants – self-emulsifiable
Scouring of Cotton
Scouring
Agents

Alkaline Emulsion Organic

Surfactants
Agents Scouring Solvents

Hydrocarbo Chlorine
n system system
Scouring of Cotton
Scouring agents
◦ Alkaline agents – Sodium hydroxide, Potassium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, sodium metasilicate,
sodium silicate, sodium phosphate, trisodium phosphate, tetrasodium phosphate, sodium
tripolyphosphate, borax etc.
◦ Surfactants – usually anionic and non-ionic
◦ Emulsion scouring agents – combination of an emulsifier and a solvent
◦ Organic solvents – Chlorine based include carbontetrachloride, trichloroethylene, perchloroethylene,
methylchloroform, trichloromethane, fluorine,
◦ Organic solvents (Hydrocarbon based) – Benzene, Industrial gasoline, white spirit, solvent naptha
Scouring of Cotton
Caustic Soda Boil Soda ash boil
◦ Kier Boiling – sodium hydroxide 10–20gpl, liquor ◦ For fabrics containing coloured yarns
ratio 3:1, temperature 130oC, time 8hrs ◦ Sodium carbonate 1-2%, wetting agent,
◦ Batch process for piece goods – treatment with temperature – boil, time 30min
sodium hydroxide 4-6% at 130oC for 8hrs
◦ Continuous process – sodium hydroxide 40-
60gpl, temperature 130-135oC, time 2min
Scouring of Cotton
Mixture of caustic soda and soda ash Soap/Detergent – Soda ash boil
◦ 2 parts caustic soda and 1 part sodium ◦ Suitable for delicate and colours woven goods
carbonate ◦ Milder combination than that of caustic soda
◦ Soda ash – softens water: favours formation of ◦ Slower action of the alkali compensated by the
stable emulsions, increases fibre swelling: addition of detergent
release of impurities, soap formation by
neutralization of fatty acids, reduced adherence
of detergents in the alkaline medium;
stabilization of pH
Scouring of wool
Wool
◦ Impurities in wool make it difficult for the fiber
to be spun into yarn or dyed, printed or finished
◦ Three important methods: emulsion scouring,
suint scouring, solvent extraction
Impurities in wool and their removal
◦ Lubricants: saponifiable oils, emulsifiable oils,
surfactant types, polyglycol types
◦ Saponifiable oils removed by scouring with soda-
ash
◦ Necessary soap formed in-situ
◦ Also emulsifies grease and dirt
◦ Emulsifiable oils removed by scouring with soap
and alkali
◦ Surfactant types removed in dyebath by normal
washing
◦ Polyglycol types removed by non-ionic
detergents in neutral conditions
Scouring of wool
Scouring of wool yarn and fabric
◦ Wool yarn – setting and scouring
◦ Wool fabric – crabbing and scouring
Setting of yarn
◦ To prevent cockling of yarn
◦ Hanks or yarn stretched on a frame, immersed in
boiling water for 30min, allowed to cool under
tension before being removed from frame
Crabbing of woollen fabrics
◦ Relaxation process to remove strains in the fabric
introduced during spinning of yarn and weaving
of fabric
◦ Fabric passes through boiling water and tightly
wound onto a roller half immersed in boiling
water
◦ Process continued for 5min and repeated in
another bath for the second time
Scouring of wool
Emulsion scouring
◦ Detergent (2-4%), sodium carbonate (2%), temperature 50-55oC, pH 10, time 10-15min
◦ Multistage scouring – also assists in removal of dirt

Suint scouring – steeping in water at 16oC

Solvent scouring
◦ About 90% removal of wool wax
◦ Solvents – benzene, carbontetrachloride, solvent naptha, white spirit, trichloroethane etc.
◦ Use of high pressure jets to remove suint and dirt along with the wax
Scouring of wool
Carbonizing of wool
◦ For the removal of cellulosic impurities
◦ Can be carried out on either loose wool or piece
goods after scouring
◦ Carried out with acids or acid liberating salts
◦ Five main stages – acidizing, drying, baking, burr
crushing, dedusting
◦ Acidizing – treatment with sulphuric acid
containing acid stable wetting agent and hydro-
extracted
Carbonizing of wool (contd.)
◦ Drying – quick drying at 60-70oC to minimize
degradation of wool at intermediate
concentrations
◦ Baking – heating to 110oC for a short time
◦ Burr crushing and dedusting – run dry through a
dolly or milling machine to remove the charred
matter
Carbonized wool subsequently neutralized
Enzymatic carbonization – cellulases,
ligninases, hydrolases, lyases, oxidoreductases
etc.
Degumming of silk
For the removal of sericin (silk gum)
Gum content varies with variety
◦ Mulberry silk: 20-30%
◦ Tussah silk: 5-15%
Different varieties of silk according to the
extent of degumming
◦ Ecru silk (crude, bast silk): rarely degummed,
hard and without lustre; scouring to remove
grease, wax and resin substances, degumming
loss approx. 4%
◦ Half boiled silk (souple, soft, matt silk): partially
degummed, degumming loss 6-12%
◦ Cuite silk (Lustre silk): fully degummed with loss
ranging from 18-30%, soft handle and high lustre
Degumming of silk
Treatment of silk by high pressure water, acids,
alkalis, soaps, synthetic detergents, enzymes
Water degumming – extraction with water at
120oC for 2hrs, process repeated 3-4 times;
minimum degradation of silk
Acid and alkali degumming – alkaline reaction
with pH>9 and acid reaction with pH<2.5
ensure rapid removal of sericin in about
30min; maximum temperature 95oC
Soap – slightly alkaline soaps used at 90-95oC
for 1.5-2hrs
Synthetic detergents – non-ionic soaps with
pH in the range of 11.2-11.5 at 95oC for 40min
Enzymes – proteolytic enzymes; usually a two
stage process
◦ 1st stage: Pre-degumming using soda ash (1gpl)
at 95oC for 20min
◦ 2nd stage: enzyme (0.06-0.1gpl) non-ionic
detergent (1gpl) at 55-60oC for 30min
◦ For complete degumming a third bath containing
soda ash or soap may be given
Scouring of synthetic fibres
Impurities – spin finishes, antistatic agents,
dirt, tinting colours, size
Intensive scouring not required
Polyester
◦ Simple rinsing with water
◦ For fabrics – alkali 2gpl, temperature 75-80oC,
time 30-60min
◦ Alternatively – anionic detergent 1-2gpl,
temperature 80-90oC, time 20-30min
◦ Strong alkali can hydrolyse polyester
Nylon
◦ Synthetic detergents with mild alkali at 90-95oC
Acrylic
◦ Relaxation prior to scouring in saturated steam
or hot water for 20min
◦ Alkaline scouring agents cause discoloration of
textiles
◦ Non-ionic detergents preferred
Regenerated cellulose
◦ Soap solution with mild alkali
◦ High degree of strength loss in wet state,
processing to be carried out in tensionless state
Scouring of blended fibre fabrics
Polyester/cotton Polyester/wool
◦ Removal of natural impurities from cotton ◦ Non-ionic detergents with mild alkali at
important temperatures in the range of 40-50oC for 20-
◦ Alkaline scouring agents with lower 30min
temperatures in some cases to avoid damage to
polyester
◦ Combined scouring and bleaching can also be
opted for
Bleaching
Bleaching
Naturally colouring matter
◦ Yellowish and brown discoloration from flavone pigments in the cotton flower
◦ Climate, soil, drought and frost can also cause various degrees of discoloration
◦ May also come from contact with leaves, stalks
◦ Also caused from dirt, dust, insects or from harvesting or processing equipment in the form of oils and
greases

Objective
◦ To destroy the colouring matter
◦ To produce whited fabrics with minimum degradation of the fibre
◦ The whiteness thus obtained should be permanent in nature
Bleaching
Types of bleaching Half Bleach
◦ Full Bleach ◦ Fabrics meant to be dyed with pale shades or to
◦ Half Bleach be printed without much white ground
◦ Absorbency more important than whiteness
Full Bleach ◦ Generally achieved by bleaching with
◦ Highest degree of whiteness is achieved hypochlorite or hydrogen peroxide of adequate
◦ Done when the fabric is going to be used as a concentration
white fabric for apparels or to be printed with
white background
◦ Usually achieved by hypochlorite bleaching
followed by hydrogen peroxide bleaching
Bleaching
Bleaching agents

Reducing bleaching agents

Oxidation bleaching Sulphur dioxide, sodium hydrosulphite,
agents sulphoxylates, acetic sodium sulphite,
sodium bisulphites

Peroxide system Chlorine system

Hydrogen Peroxide, Sodium Peroxide, Bleaching powder, Sodium hypochlorite,
Sodium Perborate, Potassium Permagnate, lithium hypochlorite, sodium chlorite,
Peracetic acid, other peracids chloramine, isocyanual trichloride
Sodium Hypochlorite (NaOCl)
Parameters: pH, Temperature, Concentration, Concentration
Electrolyte, ◦ Concentration usually employed is in the range
of 1-3gpl available chlorine
pH ◦ Commercial solution contains 14-15% available
◦ optimum pH for bleaching is 8.5-11
chlorine
◦ Risk of the pH falling as bleaching progresses
◦ Maintained by the addition of Na2CO3 Electrolyte
◦ Temporary increase in the bleaching action in
Temperature the first stage of bleaching due to release of
◦ Bleaching normally carried out in the room chlorine
temperature – 40oC
Time
◦ Higher temperature causes degradation of the
◦ 45min-2hrs
material
Sodium Hypochlorite (NaOCl)
After bleaching is completed
◦ Residual chlorine removed by anti-chlor treatment
◦ Fabric treated with sodium thiosulphate or hydrogen peroxide
◦ Residual alkali neutralized by dilute mineral acid and the process is known as souring
Sodium Hypochlorite (NaOCl)
Advantages over bleaching powder (Calcium Disadvantages
hypochlorite + Lime) ◦ Does not produce completely satisfactory whites
◦ No deposition of calcium salts, no harshness and ◦ Slight degradation of cellulose
free from danger of specks of lime deposited on ◦ Cannot be used on natural animal fibres,
the cloth
synthetic fibres
◦ Excellent solubility as compared to bleaching
◦ Requires use of corrosion resistant equipment
powder
◦ Produces unpleasant odours
◦ Lower alkalinity than required for bleaching
powder ◦ Stabilization difficult in case where there is
◦ Lower tendency for the fall in pH variation in pH
◦ Formation of AOX
◦ Better penetration of sodium hypochlorite,
faster and more efficient bleaching
Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2)
Parameters – pH, temperature, concentration,
time, stabilizer
pH
◦ Bleaching carried out at pH 10.5
◦ In neutral or weakly alkaline solutions, no
bleaching but degradation of cotton
Temperature
◦ Bleaching carried out at 90-100oC
◦ Temperature may be increased to 120oC to
reduce the process time
Concentration
◦ Dependent on liquor ratio, temperature and
class of fibre
◦ For batch processing – 2-4%owf sufficient for
cotton
◦ For continuous processing – 1-2%owf
Time
◦ 1-2 hrs for batch processing
◦ 1hr sufficient for continuous processing
Stabilizer
◦ Sodium silicate 0.5-4% owf
Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2)
Advantages
◦ Known as universal bleaching agent – can be
used to bleach almost all types of fibres whether
natural or manufactured
◦ Milder reagent as compared to hypochlorite –
less degradation of material
◦ Loss in weight less than with hypochlorite
bleaching
◦ Exerts scouring action in addition to the
bleaching – continues the scouring further, single
stage scouring or bleaching can be employed,
continuous method also possible
◦ More absorbent cotton fabric as compared to
hypochlorite
Advantages (contd.)
◦ Less liable to have any adverse effect on dyed
threads
◦ Whites produced are good and permanent and
lesser risk of yellowing at later stage
◦ No antichlor treatment required as it is essential
in the case of hypochlorite
◦ No danger of equipment corrosion, no
unpleasant odours, no limitation to processing
techniques
◦ No risk of generation of AOX as is the case with
hypochlorite
Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2)
Disadvantages
◦ Costly
◦ Requires stabilization, usually achieved by the addition of the silicates
◦ Silicates may deposit on the fabrics to cause resist stains in subsequent dyeing
◦ Also causes build-up of deposits on machinery causing abrasion damage to the fabric
◦ Possibility of catalytic damage from presence of metals in the fabric – results in small spots of unevenly
dyed fabric or even holes
Bleaching of wool with Hydrogen
Peroxide
Hydrogen peroxide is the most commonly
used bleaching agent
Sodium hypochlorite gives a deep rust colour
Sodium chlorite develops pink colouration on
wool
Bleaching can be carried out in both alkaline
and acidic conditions
Bleaching with alkaline hydrogen peroxide
◦ Concentration: 1.5-3 vol., pH: 8-10, stabilizer: 2-
3gpl, temperature: 50oC, time: 3-5hrs
Bleaching of wool with acidic hydrogen
peroxide
◦ Impregnation with hydrogen peroxide solution
containing formic acid (2.5gpl), pH 4-4.5 at room
temperature
◦ Squeezed to remove excess liquor, passed
through a drier where bleaching takes place
◦ Citric acid activator, bleaching at 60-80oC
◦ Advantage – lower degradation of wool, rinsing
not required, no bleeding tendency for coloured
threads
Bleaching of silk with hydrogen
peroxide
Naturally yellowish in colour Chemicals Mulberry Wild Silk
Silk
Bleaching with either oxidative or reductive Hydrogen Peroxide 15-20ml/l 20-30ml/l
bleaching or a combination of both (double (35% w/v)
bleach) Stabilizer 2gpl 4gpl
Bleaching above the specified temperatures Alkali (ammonia or pH 8.5-9 pH 8.5-9
tetrasodium pyrophosphate)
lower the tensile strength
Temperature (OC) 75-80 80-90
Time (hrs) 1-2 3-4
Bleaching of synthetic fibres
Regenerated cellulose Acrylic
◦ Process similar to cotton ◦ Should not be ideally bleached with hypochlorite
◦ Alkaline hypochlorite or because of their yellowing tendency
◦ Combined scour & bleaching with hydrogen ◦ Should not be bleached with chlorite
peroxide ◦ Tendency to yellow or loose stability to light
when bleached with chlorite
Acetate ◦ Can be safely bleached with hydrogen peroxide
◦ Combined scouring and bleaching
◦ Hydrogen peroxide (30%): 1-3gpl, non-ionic
detergent, sodium silicate stabilizer: 0.3gpl, pH 9,
temperature 45oC, time 1hr
◦ pH should not be more than 9
Sodium Chlorite (NaClO2)
Bleaching of cotton
◦ Sodium chlorite (1-2%), pH 4.0, sodium
dihydrogen phosphate (0.2-0.5%), stable
foaming and wetting agent (0.1%-0.25%), formic
acid, temperature 82-90oC, time 1-3hrs
Bleaching of polyester
◦ Sodium chlorite (50%) – 3-5gpl, formic acid to pH
3, temperature 95oC, time 1-2hrs
Bleaching of nylon
◦ Neither hypochlorite nor hydrogen peroxide can
be used
◦ Sodium chlorite (80%) – 1-2gpl, formic acid
(85%) – 2ml/l to pH 3.5-4, acid stable detergent –
0.2gpl, temperature 80-85oC, time 1hrs
◦ Acetic acid preferred because of buffering action
Bleaching of acetate
◦ More safe than hydrogen peroxide
◦ Sodium chlorite (0.5-2gpl), ammonium
phosphate (0.5-2.0gpl), non-ionic detergent,
temperature 70-80oC, time 60-100min
Sodium Chlorite (NaClO2)
Advantages & disadvantages
◦ Versatile bleaching agent – can be used for cotton, synthetic fibres and their mixtures
◦ Synthetic fibres sensitive to alkali can be safely bleached
◦ Permanent white
◦ Little or no degradation of cellulose
◦ Insensitive to water hardness and metal ions
◦ More expensive
◦ Cannot be used on animal fibres
◦ Toxic gas chlorine dioxide liberated
Processing Methods
Three Types Batch Methods (contd.)
◦ Batch Methods ◦ Machine loaded with a fixed quantity of the
◦ Semi-Continuous Methods material
◦ Continuous Methods ◦ Material processed according to the process
sequence in the same machine e.g. scouring,
bleaching, dyeing, washing, finish application
◦ Machine unloaded of the material and a new
batch loaded
◦ Machines used – kiers, package dyeing
machines, jigger, winch, jet-dyeing machine etc.
◦ A small batch to large batch can be processed
economically
◦ Batch-to-batch variations a problem
Processing Methods
Semi-Continuous Semi-continuous
◦ The process divided into two steps – Application ◦ Convenient for processes that are carried out at
of chemicals and residence time room temperatures
◦ One step in continuous and the other is batch ◦ High temperature processes can also be carried
◦ Usually the application of the chemicals is out
continuous
Continuous
◦ Impregnated cloth is batched on to a roller so as
◦ Both the steps i.e. the application and residence
to give sufficient time for the process to proceed
time in continuous way
to completion
◦ Fastest mode of production
◦ Covered with plastic covers and rotated
continuously at slow speeds ◦ Economical for large orders of single quality
Processing Methods
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To be edited
Dyeing
Dyeing
The classical theory relating the colour of dyes
and pigments to their molecular structure
involves the concepts of chromophores and
auxochromes
Chromophores
◦ Group of atoms principally responsible for colour
of the molecule
◦ Important chromophores – azo (-N=N-), carbonyl
(-CO-), methine (-CH=), nitro (-NO2)
Auxochromes
◦ Dye molecules require the presence of functional
groups
◦ Essential to augment or enhance the colour of the
dye
◦ Normally increase the intensity of the colour and
shift the absorption to a longer wavelength
◦ Important auxochromes – hydroxyl (-OH), amino (-
NR2)
Chromophores and auxochromes link together
through a conjugated system i.e. a system of
alternate double and single bonds usually
aromatic rings which also confer stability to
organic molecules
 Colorants
Two types of colorants
◦ Dyes
◦ Pigments

Characteristic Dyes Pigments

Solubility Required to be soluble or capable of Required to resist dissolving in any solvents which
solubilisation especially in water they may contact
Method of application Applied to textiles from an aqueous Dispersed into a liquid medium which
dyebath solution subsequently solidifies
Main chemical types Organic only Both organic and inorganic
Application For textile applications subdivision into Applicable on wide variety of materials and
classification dye application classes is of considerable classification based on application relatively
importance unimportant
Colour properties Full range of coloured species Include coloured, white and metallic species
Colorants
Exceptions
◦ Disperse dyes for polyester fibres – sparingly soluble in water, applied as fine aqueous dispersions
◦ Vat dyes for cellulosic fibres – completely insoluble in water, applied after converting into a water-
soluble form by a chemical reaction, converted back to insoluble form after the application is complete
Colorants
Classification
◦ Based on their origin
◦ Based on chemical structure
◦ Based on method of application
Based on origin [Natural & Synthetic]
◦ Natural dyes – dyes obtained from flowers, nuts,
berries and other forms of vegetable and plant
life; from mineral and animal sources
◦ Vegetable dyes – fustic, sumac, catechu or cutch,
madder, henna, saffron, logwood, indigo, alizarin
etc
◦ Animal dyes – cochineal, squid sepia, lac, tyrian
purple obtained from fish and small insects
◦ Mineral dyes – Prussian blue, chrome yellow,
iron buff
◦ Cannot be produced in large quantities
◦ Problems of technical performance
Colorants
Based on origin (contd.)
◦ Synthetic dyes
◦ Innumerable dye compounds can be manufactured
◦ Have now supplanted natural dyes
◦ Can be produced in large quantities
◦ Much better technical performance than natural dyes
Colorants
Based on chemical classification
Colorants: Chemical
Classification
Inorganic Pigments
◦ Exclusively pigments
◦ Natural as well as synthetic
◦ Also include white pigments e.g. TiO2
◦ Oxides e.g. Iron and Chromium
◦ Sulphides e.g. principally Cadmium
◦ Chromates e.g. principally lead
◦ Prussian blue and ultramarine blue
◦ Carbon black
Colorants: Classification
according to application
For cellulose For synthetic fibres
◦ Direct dyes ◦ Disperse Dyes
◦ Vat Dyes
For acrylic
◦ Reactive Dyes ◦ Basic Dyes
◦ Sulphur Dyes
◦ Azoic Dyes

For polyamides
◦ Acid Dyes
◦ Metal Complex Dyes and Mordant Dyes
Important terms
Affinity
◦ Qualitative estimation of the intermolecular
forces of attraction between colorant molecules
and the substrate
Substantivity
◦ To describe the suitability of a dye for a
particular fibre
Dyes suitable for a fibre should exhibit the
affinity or substantivity towards a fibre in
order to get them fixed initially and to resist
removal by washing afterwards
Percentage Shade
◦ Amount of dye taken to produce a particular
shade
Percentage Exhaustion
◦ Amount of dye that has been actually been
taken up by the fibre from the dyebath
E.g. for 500gm material, % shade – 2% and %
exhaustion – 90%
◦ Amount of dye taken – 10gm; Amount of dye
taken up by fibre – 9gm; amount of dye
remaining in the solution – 1gm
Important terms
Migration & Levelling
◦ Synonymous terms
◦ Migration is the ability of the dyes to transfer
from areas of higher concentration to lower
concentration
◦ Migration of dye from outside to interior of the
fibre
◦ Results in proper penetration of the dye giving
better shade and technical performance
Migration & Levelling (contd.)
◦ Migration of the dye on the fabric
◦ Results in levelled dyeing i.e. uniform colour
throughout the fabric length and width
MLR (Mass to Liquor Ratio)
◦ Measure of liquor to be taken against a given
weight of material
◦ MLR 1:20 means 20 litres of water to be taken
for 1Kg material
Direct Dyes
Capable of direct application to cellulosic Affinity as a result of a combination of Van Der
fibres Waals forces, dipolar and hydrogen bonding
Anionic dyes – presence of sulphonate (SO3-) Not very strong forces of attraction
groups
Consequently technical performance
Sulphonate groups responsible for the water somewhat inferior
solubility of the dyes
Augmented by after-treatment processes
Cotton fibres carry a slight negative charge designed to improve the fastness properties of
when in water direct dyeing
Anionic nature of the dyes can reduce affinity
for the fibres
Direct Dyes - Application
Exhaust dyeing
◦ Dye dissolved in water and added to the dyebath
after filtration
◦ Cellulosic substrate put in the dyebath
◦ Temperature raised 45-50oC and maintained for
15-20 min
◦ Thereafter common salt or glauber’s salt added
in instalments while the temperature is being
raised to 95oC-100oC
◦ Dyeing is continued at this temperature for 30-
60min depending on the depth of shade
◦ To improve the fastness properties of direct dyes
and after-treatment is usually given
◦ A cationic dye fixing agent or metal salts are
generally employed
◦ Applied at 50-55oC for 15-20 min
◦ Washing and soaping complete the dyeing
process
Vat Dyes
Totally water insoluble dyes
Converted to a water soluble ‘leuco’ form by
an alkaline reduction process
E.g. sodium dithionite (Na2S2O4) in the
presence of sodium hydroxide
Leuco form has affinity for the cellulosic fibre
and is thus taken up by the fibre
Converted back to its original insoluble form
by an oxidation reaction
Hydrogen Peroxide is commonly used
Dye gets trapped inside the fibre
Water insolubility gives the excellent wash
fastness properties characteristic of vat dyes
Vat Dyes - Application
Application of vat dyes is three stage process ◦ Reducing agent which is most commonly sodium
◦ Vatting (Reduction) dithionite added and temperature raised to
dyeing temperature to vat the dye
◦ Exhaustion
◦ Vatting is confirmed by change in colour
◦ Oxidation
◦ Leuco dye transferred to the dyebath
Reduction
◦ Vat dye converted to its leuco form that is Exhaustion
soluble in water ◦ Material to be dyed put in the machine and the
temperature raised to dyeing temperature
◦ Vat dye dispersed in water along with the
usually in the range of 50-60oC
required amount of sodium hydroxide
◦ Salt added to improve exhaustion
Vat Dyeing - Application
Exhaustion (contd.) Oxidation (contd.)
◦ pH and sodium dithionite levels regularly ◦ Oxidation carried out using hydrogen peroxide in
checked the presence of sodium hydroxide
◦ Oxygen from air consumes sodium dithionite as ◦ Additional sodium hydroxide may be added if
well as converts vat dye back to its insoluble required
form
◦ Additional sodium dithionite added after Soaping
intervals ◦ Dyed material treated with soap at boil for 15-
20min
Oxidation ◦ Removes any surface dye and improves the
◦ On completion of dyeing, goods are given a wash fastness of the dye
to remove surface dye and residual sodium ◦ A hot and cold wash completes the dyeing
dithionite and sodium alkali process
Reactive Dyes
Initially introduced for dyeing of cellulosic fibres
Later adapted for application on protein fibres
React chemically with the fibres to form a covalent bond
Exhibiting outstanding wash fastness properties
Groups
◦ Heterocyclic trazine ring
◦ Vinyl-sulphones
Reactive Dyes
Heterocyclic trazine ring (Procion Dyes)
Contains either two (dicholortriazine) or one
(monochlorotrazine) chlorine atoms
Reacts by neuclophilic substitution reaction
Reaction occurs only in the presence of alkali
Alkali is added at a later stage after the dye
has been exhausted on to the fibre
Results in more dye getting reacted with fibre
rather than water and getting hyrolyzed and
useless
Reactive Dyes
Vinyl-sulphone dyes (Remazol)
Again react with cellulose in alkaline
conditions
Nucleophilic addition reaction
Reactivity in between monochlorotriazine and
dichlorotriazine
 Reactive Dyes – Application
Fixation
Two stage application ◦ Sodium carbonate is then added in instalments
◦ Exhaustion in about 15-20min
◦ Fixation ◦ Dyeing continued at this temperature for 45-
90min depending on the shade
Exhaustion
◦ Dyebath set at 50oC Soaping
◦ After completion of dyeing time the material is
◦ Predissolved dye added to the bath
given a hot and cold wash
◦ Material to be dyed introduced in the ◦ Thereafter it is soaped at boil to remove
dyebath hydrolysed dye
◦ For hot brand dyes the temperature ◦ Otherwise the washing fastness of dye will be
raised slowly to 80oC poor
◦ Salt is also added during this time in
instalments
◦ Upon reaching the desired temperature
dyeing continued for 15-20min
Sulphur dyes
Fairly small in number but some products Dyes initially insoluble in water
manufactured in large quantities
Converted to water soluble form by treatment
Long established group of dyes for cellulosic with alkaline sodium sulphide
fibres
Reduction of disulphide to alkali soluble thiol
Capable of providing a wide range of shades
usually produce dull colours After application to the fibre, oxidation to
regenerate the insoluble polymeric structure
Polymeric in nature thus chemical structures
not fully established
Known to contain mixtures of sulphide (-S-),
disulphide (-S-S-), polysulphide (Sn) links in
heterocyclic rings
Sulphur Dyes - Application
Sulphur dye dispersed in water
Sodium polysulphide added to reduce the dye
into its water soluble form
Material to be dyed introduced in the dyebath
and the dyeing started from 50oC
Temperature gradually raised to 60-85oC with
addition of salt in instalments
Dyeing continued at this temperature for 30-
60 min
Fibres rinsed in hot water, oxidized, soaped at
80-85oC, rinsed in mild alkali solution and
dried
Azoic dyes
Also known as in-situ dyes
Contain two components
◦ Coupling agent (a phenol or aromatic amine)
◦ Developing agent (a diazotized base)
Both the components are colourless
Applied sequentially on the fibre i.e. one after
the other
Colour gets developed in the substrate itself
Limited combinations available that can be
applied successfully in this manner
Deep colours like reds and purples can be
produced
Fast to wet treatments
Tedious application process
Need for cooling systems as the reactions
need to be carried out at lower temperature
that are even lower than room temperatures
Azoic Dyes - Application
Three stage process Naptholation (contd.)
◦ Naptholation ◦ Fabric impregnated with solution of sodium
◦ Coupling or Diazotization naphtholate
◦ After-treatment ◦ The excess solution from the surface of the fibre
removed by centrifuging, squeezing, vacuum
Naptholation extraction etc.
◦ Naphthol pasted with Turkey Red Oil and small ◦ Fabric dried
amount of water
◦ Solution heated to 85OC
◦ Alkali added and heated for further 5-10min
Azoic Dyes - Application
Coupling pH5-7 essential for stability of the napholate
◦ A primary aromatic amine diazotized by reaction and diazonium salt
with sodium nitrite under acidic conditions and
low temperatures Maintained by the addition of acetic acid or
◦ Fabric is immersed in the solution of the sodium acetate
diazotized base when the reaction between the Aftertreatment
coupler and the developer completes the ◦ Soaping and rinsing carried out to remove
reaction
surface dye
◦ Also develops the full colour and brightness of
the shades
Dyeing of Wool
Acid Dyes
Used to dye protein/polyamide fibres Under acidic condition fibres carry a positive
charge
Application – direct as was in the case of direct
dyes for cotton Ionic forces develop resulting in increased
affinity of the dye for the fibre
Applied from an acidic dyebath
Improved exhaustion
Presence of one or more sulphonate (SO3)
groups Van der Waals forces, dipolar forces and
hydrogen bonding also play role in increasing
Play a dual role the affinity of the dye for the fibre
◦ Provide solubility in water
◦ Make the dye carry a negative charge when
applied from an acidic bath
Acid Dyes
Further classified as
◦ Acid-levelling or equalising dyes
◦ Fast acid, half milling or perspiration-fast dyes
◦ Acid-milling dyes & Super-milling dyes
Acid-levelling dyes
◦ Smaller in size, lower affinity, migrate easily,
resulting in a levelled shade
◦ Unlevelled dyeings can be corrected by boiling
for 30 min in the presence of increased
concentration of sodium sulphate
◦ Wet fastness moderate and in some cases poor
Fast Acid Dyes
◦ Larger in size as compared to levelling acid dyes
◦ Superior wet fastness properties as compared to
levelling acid dyes
◦ Retain some of the migration properties
Acid Milling Dyes & Super Milling
◦ So named because they have some degree of
fastness to milling process
◦ Thus have higher degree of wet fastness as
compared to previous dye classes
◦ Size larger than both the previous dye classes
◦ Poor migration properties
Application Methods – Acid Dyes
Exhaust Dyeing preferred method
Can be carried out at different stages – raw
stock/loose fibres, slubbing, yarn or finished
garments
Dyeing method
◦ Dyebath prepared with dye, sulphuric acid (2-4%
owf) or formic acid (1-3%), glauber salt (5-10% owf)
and other dyeing assistants e.g. levelling agent
◦ Material to be dyed introduced in the dyebath and
the temperature raised to boil @1oC/min
◦ Dyeing carried out for 40-60min
◦ Material subsequently washed, soaped, washed and
dried
Application Methods – Fast Acid
Dyes
Dyeing method
◦ Dyebath prepared with dye, sodium sulphate (5-
10%), acetic acid (1-3%)and other dyeing
assistants e.g. levelling agents
◦ Material to be dyed introduced in the bath and
temperature slowly raised to boil
◦ Dyeing carried out for 45-60 min
◦ Material subsequently washed, soaped, washed
and dried
Application Method – Acid Milling
Dyeing Method
◦ Dyebath prepared with acetic acid (1-3% owf) –
pH 5.0-7.5, sodium acetate (2gpl) or ammonium
sulphate (4% owf) and other dyeing assistants
◦ Material to be dyed introduced in the dyebath
and the temperature raised to boil @1oC/min
◦ Dyeing carried out for 40-60min
◦ Material subsequently washed, soaped, washed
and dried
Mordant dyes/ Chrome Dyes
Similar to acid dyes
Additionally have ability to form stable
complexes with chromium
Dye applied to fibre as an acid dye
Treated subsequently with a chromium salt
e.g. potassium dichromate
Gives very good level dyeing and migration
properties before chroming
And after chroming excellent wet fastness
When a single chromium ion coordinates with
two dye molecules, a considerable increase in
size of the molecules results
Improves the fastness properties
Most widely used for heavy shades e.g. navy
and black
Disadvantages
◦ Long dyeing times
◦ Potentially high levels of fibre damage
◦ Environmental concerns associated with the use
of chromium
Application Method – Mordant
Dyes
Three application methods Meta-chrome dyeing
◦ Chrome mordant dyeing ◦ Co-application of dye and chromium from a
◦ Meta-chrome dyeing dyebath at neutral pH
◦ After-chrome dyeing ◦ Restricted to dyes which have affinity for wool at
neutral pH
Chrome mordant dyeing ◦ Good macro levelness
◦ Pre-chroming wool ◦ Disadvantage – limited number of suitable dyes
◦ Dye application ◦ Disadvantage – inability to achieve very heavy
◦ Permits simple shade matching shades, because of limited exhaustion at neutral
◦ Disadvantage – requires two separate baths pH
◦ ◦ Disadvantage – high residual levels of chromium,
Disadvantage – chroming step causes significant
fibre damage resulting from less than optimum dyebath
exhaustion of the mordant at neutral pH
Application Method – Mordant
Dyes
After-chrome dyeing
◦ Most widely adopted technique
◦ Separate steps but carried out in the same bath
◦ Reduced dyeing times, water and energy
requirements
◦ No restriction on shade
◦ Better fastness properties than either of the
other two chrome dyeing techniques
◦ Disadvantage – difficulty in shade matching
Metal Complex Dyes
Exemplified by 1:1 metal complex and 1:2 1:1 Metal Complex Dyes
metal complex dyes ◦ Commonly applied from a strongly acidic bath
with a pH of approximately 2
Preformed dyes ◦ Possess excellent migrating and levelling
Have high affinity for the fibre because of their character
large size ◦ Prolonged dyeing under such low pH causes
fibre damage
Excellent light fastness and wash fastness ◦ Reduced amounts of sulphuric acid or use of
other acids like formic acid or sulphamic acid or
use of a proprietary levelling agent is suggested
Metal Complex Dyes
Metal Complex Dyes
1:1 Metal Complex Dyes
◦ Alternatively dyeing at 80oC is also suggested
Dyeing of Silk
Dyeing with Acid Dyes
Lower affinity of dyes for silk as compared to wool
Lesser problem encountered in level dyeing
Super milling dyes show very good fastness
Exhaust dyeing at neutral or acidic pH is preferable
method
Dyebath prepared at 40-45oC with Acetic Acid (2-
4%) and Glauber’s Salt (5-10%) to maintain a pH 4-5
Some amount of boiled-off liquor is also used in
dyeing
Acts as levelling agent and keeps silk soft and
lustrous
Pre-dissolved dye added, dyeing continued for
10min
Temperature raised to 80-85oC in 45 min and dyeing
continued for further 30-90min
Dyeing beyond this temperature reduces lustre
A thorough washing to remove superficial dye
Strong acid dyes can be applied at pH 3-4 using 1-3%
Formic Acid (HCOOH) and 5% Glauber’s salt
Brilliant shades produces with good light fastness
abut poor to moderate wash fastness
Improved by treatment with cationic dye fixing
agent (2-4gpl) at 40-50oC for 20min
Dyeing with Metal Complex
Dyes
Dyeing method similar to dyeing of wool
Dyeing carried out at 90oC in the presence of
Acetic Acid alone or in combination with
Ammonium Sulphate (5%)
Ammonium Sulphate acts as a buffer and
increases the dye uptake substantially
After-treatment with cationic dye fixing agent
(2-4gpl) at 40-50oC for 15-20min to improve
the wash fastness
Produce dull shades with good light and wash
fastness
Dyeing with Mordant dyes
Dyebath set with Glauber’s salt (10%) and
acetic acid (4%)
Temperature raised to 90oC over 30min after
which formic acid is added for complete
exhaustion
Dyeing continued for further 15min and then
dried without washing
Mordanting is done with mordant solution
containing basic salts of chromium (3%) for
16hrs at 30oC
Washing and drying completes the process
Restricted application due to
◦ Production of dull shades
◦ Deposition of chromium on silk imparts rigidity
with loss of its characteristic scroop
Mostly limited to the application of logwood
black
Silk first steeped in a solution of cutch or
myrabolan at 50-60oC
Then steeped in a solution of pyrolignite of iron
at 60-70oC
Squeezed and exposed to air for 1-2 hours and
washed
Nylon Dyeing
Acid Dyes
Rate of dyeing dependent on pH Milling Acid Dyes
◦ Increases slowly from pH 7 to 4 ◦ Moderate affinity
◦ Remains somehow changed from pH 4 to 2.7 ◦ Applied at pH 4-5 with Acetic Acid (3-4%) at 95oC
◦ Steep rise in pH from 2.7 to 1 for 60-75min

Positive charge on nylon varies with pH Super-Milling Acid Dyes

◦ Lower the pH higher the charge and higher strike
rate
For Levelling or Equalizing Acid dyes
◦ Low affinity
◦ Applied at pH 1-2 using Sulphuric Acid (2%) at
95oC in presence of Na2SO4 (10%) for 60min
◦ Very high affinity
◦ Applied at neutral pH using Ammonium Sulphate
or Ammonium Acetate (3%) at 95oC for 60min
◦ Strike rate controlled by pH, temperature and
retarding agents (electrolye)
Metal Complex dyes
1:1 Metal Complex type
◦ Dyebath prepared with dye, Sulphuric Acid (8%)
or Formic Acis (3-4%) and electrolyte (0.1-3%) at
pH 1.5
◦ Dyeing started at 40-45oC, slowly raised to boil
◦ Dyeing continued for 1.5-2 hrs followed by
soaping and washing
1:2 Metal Complex Dye
◦ Dyebath prepared with dye, disodium phosphate
(0.5gpl) and non-ionic detergent (2%) at pH 6-6.5
◦ Dyeing started at 45-50oC and raised to boil
◦ Acid liberating agents e.g. Ammonium Sulphate
may be added to improve exhaustion
◦ Dyeing carried out for 1.5-2 hrs followed by
soaping and washing
Migration of the dye poor due to larger
structure of dye molecule
Causes poor coverage of shades, compound
shades produced with least effort, light as well
as wash fastness properties are good
Dyeing of Polyester
Disperse Dyes
Electrically neutral
Do not have affinity for any fibre
Mainly used for dyeing polyester, acetates and
to some extent polyamides
Dye molecules do not contain any water-
solubilizing group e.g. sulphonate (SO3)
Relatively low water solubility
Applied as fine dispersion in water
Polyester is relatively non-polar and
hydrophobic
Primary forces of attraction between the dye
and the fibre are Van der Waals forces, dipolar
interaction and hydrogen bonding
Presence of polar groups such as sulphone
(SO2), cyano (CN) and amino (NH2) improve the
affinity of the dye for the fibre as a result of
dipolar interactions
Second function of these groups is to provide
some degree of water solubility especially at
high temperature at which these dyes are
applied (120-130oC)
Disperse Dyes
Small molecular size, non-ionic character –
dyes tend to be volatile
Prone to sublime out of the fibre when
exposed to high temperatures e.g. in heat
setting and ironing
Possibility of staining of adjacent fabrics
Sublimation fastness increased with increasing
either the size of the molecule or the polarity
of the molecule or both
This character used advantageously in
sublimation transfer printing
The only class of dye suitable for sublimation
transfer printing
Disperse Dyes - Application
Batch methods
◦ Atmospheric dyeing with carriers
◦ HTHP (High-pressure High Temperature) dyeing
Atmospheric Dyeing
◦ Carriers cause swelling of the fibre
◦ Allow the dye to penetrate the fibre which is
otherwise very compact to allow the penetration
of the dye
◦ E.g. o-phenol, dichlorobenzene,
trichlorobenzene
◦ Carrier undesirable as they cause pollution
problems
Atmospheric Dyeing (contd.)
◦ Also cause colour migration from the interior to
the surface when the fabric is heated to a
sufficiently high temperature e.g. in singeing
◦ Dyebath prepared with dye, dispersing agent,
acetic acid (pH 5.5-6.5)
◦ Dyeing started at 50-60oC and temperature
raised to 80oC
◦ Required amount of carrier added and
temperature slowly raised to boil
◦ Dyeing continued for 2-3 hours
◦ Subsequent washing with non-ionic/anionic
detergent along with sodium carbonate for
removal of carrier
Disperse Dyes - Application
HTHP Dyeing
◦ Most popular commercial method of batchwise
dyeing
◦ Dyeing carried out at 125-135oC under pressure
◦ Method based on the opening of the fibre
structure at higher temperature
◦ Eliminates the use of carriers
◦ Better dye diffusion, better levelness, good
fastness properties
◦ Generates lesser waste water load
◦ Dyebath prepared with dispersing agent and
acetic acid (pH 5.5-6.5)
◦ Material entered into the dyebath
◦ Temperature raised to 60oC and then the dye is
added
◦ Temperature is again raised slowly to 90oC and
then to 120oC @1-1.5 oC/min, then quickly to
130-135oC
◦ Dyeing continued at this temperature for 30-
90min
◦ Preferable to discharge the bath at this
temperature – takes care of the oligomer
problem
◦ Oligomers tend to precipitate as the bath
temperature goes below 120oC
◦ Causes harsh feeling and deteriorates rubbing
fastness of the dyeing
Disperse Dyes - Application
HTHP Dyeing
◦ Reduction clearing treatment carried out to
remove surface dye
◦ Improves the rubbing and wash fastness of the
dyed material
◦ Achieved by treatment with sodium dithionite
(3gpl) and sodium hydroxide (3gpl) at 50-60oC for
15-20 min
◦ Soaped, rinsed and dried
Continuous application [Thermosol Application]
◦ Fabric padded with the dye solution with 70-80%
expression
◦ Controlled drying at 90-100oC to avoid migration
Continuous application [Thermosol Application]
(contd.)
◦ Fabric padded with the dye solution with 70-80%
expression
◦ Controlled drying at 90-100oC to avoid migration
◦ Passed through a hot chamber maintained at 180-
220oC
◦ Dye diffuse into the fabric and excellent fastness is
obtained in a short time
◦ Best method for dyeing of polyester-cotton blends
◦ Cotton picks up the dye liquor and dye gets
transferred to polyester during thermo-fixation
◦ Reduction clearing treatment for improvement in
wash fastness is recommended
Dyeing of Acrylic
Basic Dyes
Basic dyes invariably used for dyeing of acrylic
fibres
Cationic dyes because of the presence of
positively charged quaternary nitrogen atoms (-
NR33+ or =NR23+)
Serve two purposes
◦ Provide water solubility because of the ionic
character
◦ Provide affinity for the acrylic fibres
Acrylic fibres contain anionic groups (SO2 and CO2)
Ionic attractions are the main forces of attraction
between the dye and fibre
Tg of acrylic 80oC, complete opening occurs by
the time temperature is raised to 85oC
No diffusion of dye inside the structure of fibre
till the temperature reaches 80oC
Advantages
◦ All deep shades can be developed with ease
◦ Shades are brighter
◦ Fastness properties are excellent
Dyeing methods
◦ Non-Retarder Method
◦ Retarder Method
Basic Dyes – Application
Methods
Non-Retarder Method
◦ Bath is heated in a controlled manner
◦ Dyeing started at 40oC and quickly raised to 70oC
◦ Rise in temperature restricted to 1oC/min till
85oC
◦ Thereafter raised to 95oC rapidly
◦ Dyeing carried for 1-2hrs
◦ Soaping and washing
Basic Dyes
Retarder Method (Cationic)
◦ Bath set at pH 4.5, cationic retarder (2%) and
60oC
◦ Acrylic treated in this bath for 10min and then
dye is added
◦ Dyeing carried out at 95oC for 1-2 hrs
Retarder Method (Anionic)
◦ Bath set at 60oC with anionic retarder (0.5-2%),
non-ionic dispersing agent (2-3%), Acetic Acid in
combination with Sodium Acetate to get a pH
around 4.5
◦ Bath heated up to 85oC rapidly then slowly to
boil
◦ Dyeing further carried out for 1-2 hrs, followed
by soaping and washing
◦ Basic dye forms a complex with the anionic
retarder; the whole complex takes part in the
dyeing
Blend Dyeing
Blend Dyeing
Classification of fibre types by dyeing
properties
A fibres – dyed with acid dyes in full depths
e.g. wool and other animal fibres, silk, nylon,
polyurethanes, acid-dyeable variant of nylon,
polypropylene, acrylic and modacrylic fibres
B fibres – dyed with basic dyes in full depths
e.g. basic dyeable acrylic, modacrylic, nylon
and polyester
C fibres – dyed with cellulosic dyes in full
depths e.g. cotton, linen and other bast fibres,
viscose, Lyocell, modal and other Polynosic
fibres
D fibres – dyed with disperse dyes in full
depths e.g. acetate, triacetate, polyester,
deep-dye polyester variants, poly(vinyl
chloride)
Types of Blends
Types of blends ◦ CC Blends – Cotton/Viscose, Cotton/modal,
◦ Primary blends – Binary blends of fibres Cotton/Polynosic, Cotton/linen, Linen/viscose,
belonging to the same group e.g. AA, BB, CC, DD Linen/modal
blends ◦ DD Blends – Cellulose acetate/triacetate,
◦ AA Blends – Wool/silk, Wool/mohair, Cellulose acetate/polyester
Wool/cashmere, Wool/angora, Nylon/wool,
Nylon/Silk, Wool/polyurethane,
Nylon/polyurethane, Wool/acid-dyeable
polypropylene, Nylon/acid-dyeable
polypropylene, Normal/deep-dyeable nylon
Blend Dyeing
Types of blends
◦ Secondary blends – Binary blends of fibres
belonging to different groups e.g. AB, AC, CB, DA,
DB, DC
◦ AB Blends – Wool/acrylic, Silk/acrylic,
Nylon/acrylic, Polyurethane/acrylic, Acid-dyeable
polypropylene/acrylic, Wool/modacrylic,
Mohair/modacrylic, Nylon/modacrylic, Acid-
dyeable/basic-dyeable acrylic,
Modacrylic/acrylic, Deep-dye/basic-dyeable
nylon, Wool/basic-dyeable polyester,
Nylon/basic-dyeable polyester
Types of blends
◦ AC Blends – Wool/cotton, Silk/cotton,
Nylon/cotton, Polyurethane/cotton, Acid-
dyeable polypropylene/cotton, Wool/viscose,
Silk/viscose, Nylon/viscose, Wool/modal,
Nylon/modal, Nylon/linen
◦ CB Blends – Cotton/acrylic, Viscose/acrylic,
Modal/acrylic, Polynosic/acrylic,
Cotton/modacrylic, Viscose/modacrylic
◦ DA Blends – Cellulose acetate/wool, Cellulose
acetate/silk, Cellulose acetate/nylon, Cellulose
triacetate/wool, Cellulose triacetate/silk,
Cellulose triacetate/nylon, Polyester/wool,
Polyester/silk, Polyester/acid-dyeable
polypropylene
Blend Dyeing
Types of blends Types of blends
◦ DB Blends – Cellulose acetate/acrylic, Cellulose ◦ Tertiary Blends – combination of three fibres
triacetate/acrylic, Polyester/acrylic, Cellulose with each fibre usually from different groups
acetate/modacrylic, Cellulose
triacetate/modacrylic, Polyester/modacrylic,
Normal/basic-dyeable polyester
◦ DC Blends – Cellulose acetate/cotton, Cellulose
triacetate/cotton, Polyester/cotton, Cellulose
acetate/viscose, Cellulose triacetate/viscose,
Polyester/viscose, Cellulose triacetate/modal,
Polyester/modal, Polyester/Polynosic,
Polyester/linen
Blend Dyeing
Four major type of coloured effects types possible ◦ Different colours used for dyeing the different fibre types
while dyeing of blends ◦ Gives an effect of yarn dyed fabric
◦ Reserve dyeing
Union dyeing
◦ Cross/Contrast dyeing ◦ Similar to cross-dyeing
◦ Tone-on-tone/Shadow dyeing ◦ Both the fibres dyed to same shade to produce a solid-
◦ Union/Solid dyeing shade fabric
◦ Different fastness characteristics of the different fibres
Reserve dyeing give uneven fading
◦ Only one fibre is dyed and the other is kept white
Tone-on-Tone dyeing
Cross dyeing ◦ Light and dark shades in the fabrics
◦ Fabric made up of fibres of different fibre groups e.g. ◦ Fabrics usually contain on group of generic fibre having
protein and cellulosic, acid-dyeable and basic different dye affinity
dyeable, polyester with cotton or wool ◦ Fibre with stronger dye affinity takes up more dye
◦ Each fibre class show affinity for different fibre class ◦ Get more deeply dyed than the other type
 Blend Dyeing – Colour Effect
attainable on binary blends
Colour Effect
Blend Type
Solid Reserve Shadow Contrast
AA (Nylon/Wool) Use of auxiliaries Neither Component Easily controlled Not possible
AB (Nylon/Acrylic) Easily controlled Acrylic Reserve Seldom required Wide range available
AC (Nylon/cellulosic) Easily controlled Cellulosic reserve Seldom required Wide range available
CB (Cellulosic/acrylic) Easily controlled Either component Seldom required Wide range available
CC (Cotton/viscose) Dyeing conditions Neither component Viscose deeper Not possible
 Blend Dyeing – Colour Effect
attainable on binary blends
Colour Effect
Blend Type
Solid Reserve Shadow Contrast
DA (Polyester/wool) Dyeing conditions Polyester reserve Possible Limited range
DB (Polyester/acrylic) Easily controlled Polyester reserve Acrylic deeper Limited range
DC (Polyester/cellulosic) Easily controlled Either component Possible Wide range available
DD (Triacetate/polyester) Dyeing conditions Polyester reserve Easily controlled Not possible
Blend Dyeing
Methods used for blend dyeing 1-bath 2-step methods
◦ 1-bath 1-step methods ◦ Dyes for both the class of fibres are put together
◦ 1-bath 2-step methods in the same dyebath
◦ 2-bath 2-step methods ◦ Firstly one fibre gets dyed as the conditions are
made suitable for that dye-fibre combination
1-bath 1-step methods ◦ On completion of dyeing of the first fibre, the
◦ Dyes for both the class of fibres are put together dyebath conditions are made favourable for the
in the same dyebath second dye-fibre combination
◦ Both the fibres take up the dyes simultaneously ◦ Second fibre gets dyed and the process gets
completed
Blend Dyeing
2-bath 2-step method
◦ Most convenient method
◦ Most commonly used for secondary blends
◦ Should be opted only when there is a chance of interference in the dyeing of the component fibres in
single bath methods
◦ Not economical as the consumption of water and energy as well as chemicals is almost twice than single
bath methods
◦ Dyebath for one fibre prepared and the dyeing carried out
◦ Fresh dyebath for the second fibre is prepared and the dyeing of the second fibre carried out
Blend Dyeing
Polyester/Cellulose blend
◦ Both polyester/cotton or polyester/viscose
blends quite popular
◦ Polyester dyed with disperse dyes
◦ Cellulosic fibres can be dyed with all types of
cellulosic dyes
◦ Any of the 1-bath or 2-bath method can be used
for dyeing
◦ All the four dyeing effects possible: solid,
reserve, contrast, shadow
◦ Blends lends itself well to dyeing by batch or
continuous dyeing processes
Polyester/Cellulose blend (contd.)
◦ Reactive dye most suitable but vat dyes used
where higher demands on fastness properties
are imposed
◦ Continuous methods – fabric padded with a
mixture of disperse/vat dye, dried, passed
through a hot chamber maintained at 175oC for
few minutes where the disperse dye gets fixed,
passed through a solution of sodium dithionite
and sodium hydroxide, reduction clearing of
disperse dye as well as conversion of vat dye to
leuco form, cotton gets dyed, fabric
subsequently passes through a solution of
oxidizing agent to convert vat dye to its original
form, soaping to remove surface dye and dried
Blend Dyeing
Polyester/Wool blend
◦ Wool sensitive to high temperatures used for
dyeing of polyesters
◦ Dyeing either carried out at elevated
temperatures for a short period or
◦ Dyeing carried out at boil in the presence of
carrier for disperse dyeing of polyester
◦ Wool dyed using acid or metal-complex dyes
Polyester/Wool blend (contd.)
◦ Polyester dyed using disperse dyes
◦ Disperse dyes have a tendency to colour wool
◦ Need to be removed by reduction clear
treatment before dyeing of wool
◦ Reserve shade possible by keeping the polyester
undyed
◦ Contrast, solid and shadow shades possible but
damage to wool needs to be monitored
Blend Dyeing
Wool/Nylon blend Wool/Nylon blend (contd.)
◦ Nylon has lower saturation value than wool ◦ Reserve shade generally not possible
because of fewer dye sites ◦ Can be obtained by dyeing nylon with disperse
◦ Consequently wool will be deeper dyed than dyes or disperse-reactive dyes
nylon ◦ Wool remains undyed
◦ Both the fibres get dyed by acid and metal ◦ Contrast shades not possible
complex dyes
◦ 1-bath 1-step process used for dyeing this blend
◦ Shadow effects easily obtained by short dyeing
times
◦ Solid shades produced by extended dyeing times
Blend Dyeing
Wool/acrylic or nylon/acrylic blend
◦ Wool/nylon dyed with acid and metal complex dyes
◦ Acrylic dyed with basic dyes
◦ Both the fibres require similar dyeing conditions especially slightly acidic pH
◦ Reserve dyeing can be obtained by keeping acrylic undyed
◦ Solid, contrast and shadow effects easily obtainable
Stages of Dyeing
Stages of Dyeing
Adding colour to the textiles Desirable to add colour as late as possible
◦ Before fibre manufacture (solution or dope ◦ Commercially beneficial
dyeing) ◦ Technical performance poorer
◦ In fibre
◦ In yarn Tremendous demand on the preparatory to
◦ In fabric
dyeing
◦ In product Good preparatory gives excellent results in
dyeing
Dope dyeing needs to be carried out at the
fibre manufacture’s end
All other dyeing processes carried out in
processing house
Solution dyeing or dope dyeing
Part of the manufacturing fibres Colours fade proof i.e. exceptional light
fastness and wet fastness
Colouring agent added to the melt/solution of
the polymer before extrusion Fabrics well suited for draperies, automotive
fabrics where great sunlight exposure is
Colour becomes the part of the fibre itself and expected
is permanent
Available in limited number of shades as
Mostly used for fibres that cannot be dyed frequent shade change is not economically
easily using aqueous methods e.g. acetates feasible
(heat-sensitivity) and olefins like polyethylene
and polypropylene (do not take up dye from
aqueous solution)
Fibre or Stock Dyeing
Refers to dyeing a staple fibre before it is spun
Used for producing heather effects – when
dyed and undyed fibres are blended and spun
into yarn
Top Dyeing refers to dyeing of wool fibres
Tops are combed wool slivers wound into balls
and then dyed
For fibre dyeing, loose fibres are loaded into
large perforated cylindrical vessels
Placed into machines and the dye liquor
circulated through these fibres at a given
temperatures for specified time
For top dyeing the tops are places onto
perforated spindles similar to the ones used
for yarn dyeing
Carrier placed in the dyeing machine and the
dye liquor circulated through the tops
Fibre dyeing gives the best penetration of the
dye into the fibre and consequently the best
performance with regards to fastness
properties
Fibre or Stock Dyeing
Yarn Dyeing
Types Beam dyeing
◦ Skein dyeing ◦ A beam of yarn prepared by winding the yarn
◦ Package dyeing onto large perforated beam
◦ Beam Dyeing ◦ Usually used for the dyeing of warp threads
◦ Dyed beam directly taken to the weaving
Skein Dyeing machine for weaving
◦ Yarns are wound into skeins or hanks
◦ Loaded into the machines Quality of dyeing better than fabric dyeing but
◦ Dyed as the requirement of the process inferior to fibre dyeing

Package Dyeing Preferably used where there is a patterned

◦ Yarns wound onto perforated spindles effect in the fabric
◦ Loaded onto a carrier and then into the machine Less costly than fibre dyeing but expensive
◦ Dyed and removed from machine than fabric dyeing
Yarn Dyeing
Yarn Dyeing
Yarn Dyeing
Yarn Dyeing
Yarn Dyeing
Fabric Dyeing
Usually used for dyeing of fabrics in solid colours
Cheaper than both fibre and yarn dyeing
With fabric dyeing, possible to delay the colour decisions
Allowing rapid changes to fashion trends
Three methods
◦ Liquor stationary – textile circulated in the liquor
◦ Textile stationary – liquor circulated through the textile
◦ Both textile and liquor are circulated
Fabric Dyeing – Jig Dyeing
Fabric treated in open width
Fabric passed through a dyebath onto a roller
When whole of the fabrics has passed through dyebath, the movement of the fabric is reversed
With each pass of the fabric the shade gets darker and darker
Tensions imposed by the machine cause the fabric handle to get flattened
Stretch fabrics e.g. knitted and stretch woven fabrics cannot be dyed on this machine
Possibility of shade variation
◦ Centre-selvedge
◦ End-end

Caused by tension variations

Fabric Dyeing – Jig Dyeing
Fabric Dyeing – Winch Dyeing
Fabric in rope form stitched end to end
Fabric lifted in and out of the dyebath by a reel
Most of the fabric immersed in the dyebath where penetration of the dye into the slack fabric
occurs
Method suitable for fabrics that cannot withstand tension
Simple, versatile and low-cost
Low warp tension, bulking of yarn occurs
Causes creasing, abrasion and distortion of some fabrics
Consumption of chemicals, water and energy on higher side
Fabric Dyeing – Winch Dyeing
Fabric Dyeing – Jet Dyeing
Fabric in rope form circulated through a closed system
Vigorous agitation of dye liquor and fabric
Fabric moved by fast moving dye liquor
No pressure and little tension is exerted on the fabric
Delicate varieties of fabrics can be easily dyed
Machines can be easily pressurized
Polyester can be conveniently dyed in these machines at temperatures above 100oC
Maintenance cost is high, foaming can be a problem, some fabrics may be abraded
Fabric Dyeing – Jet Dyeing
Fabric Dyeing – Beam dyeing
Fabric wound onto a perforated cylinder
Dye liquor forced through the layers of the
fabric
Used for lightweight and open constructions
Fabric not subjected to stresses and tensions
Rapid and economical
Beam Dyeing
Fabric Dyeing – Continuous
dyeing
Machines are usually called ranges
Machine has various compartments e.g. for wetting out, dyeing, after-treatment, washing,
rinsing
Usually used for dyeing of fabrics but warp yarns can also be dyed
Efficient for long runs
Shade matching bit difficult thus colour tolerances may be relaxed
Product/Garment Dyeing
Dyeing of stitched and sewn garments
Simpler forms of garments can be dyed
Paddle dyeing or rotary drum machines
Both fabric and liquor circulated by the paddles
Tumblers another type of machines used
Fabrics to by dyed are put in large nylon net bags
Many bags then put in the machines
Effect of dyeing process on sizing, threads,
zipper, snaps and other accessories need to be
considered
Printing
Printing
Localized dyeing – i.e. dyeing which is confined to certain portions of the fabric
Allows for greater design flexibility and produces beautiful effects
Relatively inexpensive method for producing patterned fabrics
Same colouring matter employed as used for dyeing
Colour applied in the form of paste rather than as solution
Colour seldom penetrates the fabric thus the back of the fabric is usually paler than the face
A separate treatment is usually required after printing to develop the full strength of the colour
and to fix the colour on the fabric
 Dyeing vs. Printing
DYEING
Mono colour application
Dyes applied in solution
Salt is added for better exhaustion
Higher temperature is used for better
penetration of dyes into the fabric
PRINTING
Mono or multi colour application
Dyes applied as a paste
Salt is not added
Temperature is not used at the time of
printing, but a subsequent high
temperature treatment is required for
the fixation of the dyes
Dyeing vs. Printing
DYEING PRINTING
Water plays an important role in dyeing Thickener plays an important role in
printing
Percentage shade calculated on the basis Percentage shade calculated on the basis
of weight of material of weight of print paste
Consumes more time for better Consumes less time as colour is applied
penetration on the surface of the fabric
Half-bleached fabric may be used Full bleached fabric is used
Fabric processed in open width or rope Fabric processed in open width form
form
Dyeing vs. Printing
DYEING PRINTING
Fabric may be in wet or dry condition Fabric has to be in dry condition only
Uniform colour application on both the Face side darker than the back side as
sides of the fabric the colour is applied only on one side
Machinery requirements in dyeing (tanks, winches, jigger, padding mangles, jet
dyeing machines) comparatively simpler than printing (design, screen preparation,
printing machines and after process machinery
Dyeing vs. Printing
DYEING PRINTING
Cost of dyeing per meter is comparatively lower than printing
Water consumption in dyeing more than printing
Dyes goods can be stripped and re-dyed Stripping/reprinting/corrections difficult
Defect free fabrics required Printing can cover fabric defects
Fabric Requirements for Printing
Fabric should be of uniform width Protruding fibres to be removed by singeing
Fabric should be free from weft bowing to Thorough desizing and scouring to ensure
avoid distortion of the design proper penetration of print paste
Fabric should be dimensionally stable Usually full-bleached fabric used
Surface of the fabric should be clean
Loose threads to be removed
Styles of Printing
4 main styles
◦ Direct
◦ Resist
◦ Discharge
◦ Transfer

Direct Printing – colour applied directly to the

fabric in the pattern and location desired in
the finished fabric
Direct Printing
Colour applied directly to the fabric in the
form of paste
After printing, fabric dried and fixation of
colour achieved by steaming/curing/thermo-
fixing or by treatment with chemicals
Almost all types of synthetic dyes and
pigments can be applied by this method
Mordant colours, vegetable colours and
mineral colours can also be applied by this
method
Block printing, roller printing, screen printing,
flock printing, damask printing, foam printing
all come under the direct printing style
Direct Printing
Advantages
◦ Simple and easy to produce
◦ Less number of operations
◦ All colours are applied and fixed simultaneously
Disadvantages
◦ Colour blotches with sharp outlines that are
difficult to produce
◦ Difficult to incorporate small coloured motifs on
dark ground by this style
◦ Difficult to print knitted goods in fine designs
with sharp outlines in this style
Overprinting
Application of design on fabric that has already been piece dyed
Overprinting with dyes successful only when printing dark on light background because they are
transparent
As pigment are opaque, overprinting with pigments can involve both light and dark colours
printed on any background
Styles of Printing
Resist Printing
◦ Fabric treated in a way to block absorption of colour
during subsequent dyeing

White Resist
◦ Ground colour resisted from fixation by the printed
paste
◦ Outcome is white printed pattern on a coloured
ground

Colour Resist
◦ A dye which is not affected by the resisting agent is
incorporated in the print paste
◦ Ground colour application resisted by the print paste
◦ Outcome being coloured motif on a coloured ground
Resist Printing
Two step process
◦ Application of chemical or wax like substance on
white fabric that resists the penetration of dye
into the fabric
◦ Alternatively mechanical resist methods may
also be used
◦ In the second step the fabric is dyed when the
portions of the fabrics given a resist treatment
are left undyed
Resist Methods
◦ Mechanical resist
◦ Chemical resist
Mechanical resist agents include rubber
bands, threads, wax, thickener paste etc.
Chemical resist agents include acid, alkalies,
various salts, oxidizing or reducing agents etc.

The process may be repeated to produce Some of the resist methods

colourful patterns ◦ Batik
◦ Tie-Dye
◦ Ikat
Batik
Hand process
Hot wax is applied to a fabric in the form of
design
Wax allowed to set or harden
Fabric then piece dyed
Dye penetration get prevented in wax covered
portions
Colours are built up by piece dyeing light
colours first…..
Batik
Waxing new portions and redyeing until the
design is complete
Wax is later removed by a solvent or by boiling
Special feature of the batik style is the veins or
marble like lines caused by the cracks than
develop in the wax in the resisted portions
Tie-Dye
Hand process
Areas of fabric wrapped with thread or string
Fabric is dyed and the string is removed
Process repeated for different colours starting
from light to dark
Ikat
Yarn tied, dyed and then woven
Applied to warp yarns only (warp ikat), filling
yarns only (filling ikat) or to both warp and
filling (double ikat)
Designs do not have precise edges
Great skill required to determine the
placement of the design in the finished fabric
Resist Printing
Advantages
◦ Sharp, clear and distinct motifs on dark grounds
can be produced in some styles
◦ Overlaps and joints are avoided
◦ Good depth of shade and richness of colour
obtained in the background
◦ Can be conveniently used where background
colour cannot be discharged
Disadvantages
◦ Very slow and labour intensive process
◦ Complex operations of application of resist
agents, dyeing and removal of the resist agents
◦ Costly
Practiced as a handicraft rather than on a
production basis
Styles of Printing
Discharge Printing – piece-dyed fabric in
which the design is made by removing colours
from selected fabric areas
Can be a white discharge in which the
background colour is simply removed
Or can be a coloured discharge in which the
background colour is removed and
simultaneously another colour introduced
Discharge Printing
Two step process
◦ Fabric is dyed
◦ Fabric design is printed onto the fabric
Print paste contains a discharge agent that
destroys the background colour of the dye
A white design on coloured background is
obtained
Called the white discharge
A dye that is resistant to the discharging agent
may be incorporated in the print paste
A coloured design is produced on a coloured
background
Known as coloured discharge
Discharging agents can either be oxidizing
agents like potassium chlorate, potassium
dichromate
Or reducing agents like sodium bisulhpite,
stannous chloride, sodium hydrosulphite,
Rongalite C (Sodium formaldehyde
sulphoxylate), Safolin (Zinc formaldehyde
sulphoxylate)
Discharge Printing
VAT Discharge Printing on Reactive ground
Application of Reactive dye through padding
◦ Selected dischargeable reactive colours applied
by exhaust or padding method Disachargeble Reactive Dyes X gpl
◦ Among all the reactive dyes vinyl sulphone
Urea (Hygroscopic & dissolution X/5 gpl
(Remazol) dyes give the best results since they
agent)
are easily dischargeable Sodium bicarbonate or Soda Ash 10-20gpl
◦ Vat dyes require reducing conditions for(Alkali)
fixation
◦ Under reducing conditions selective reactive
Resist Salt (mild oxidizing agent for 10-20gpl
dyes gets destroyed (during steaming) ground colour protection)
◦ Oxidation after steaming produces the original
colour
Discharge Printing
White Discharge Coloured Discharge
Rongalite – C (Discharging agent) 12 - 18% Vat dye (non dischargeable X%
Potassium Carbonate (Alkali) 8 - 10% illumination colour) (Paste I Fine
powder Forms dispersed)
Glycerine (Hygroscopic Agent) 2- 5%
Sodium hydroxide (Strong Alkali) 0.5 - 1 % Rongolite - C (Discharging agent) 8 - 15%
TiO2 - 1:1 paste (Whitening agent) 1-2% Potassium Carbonate (Alkali) 8 - 10%
Optical brightener (Ranipal 2B) 0.5%
(To improve whiteness) Glycerine (Penetrant) 2-5%

Thickening Paste Balance Thickening Paste Balance

Total 100 parts Total 100 parts
Discharge Printing
Print [using either rotary or flat screen printing]

Drying at 60-80oC

Cool upto 25oC for better colour yield

Immediate steaming at 102-103oC using saturated steam [removal of air

from the steamer is ensured]

Washing
Discharge Printing
Washing sequence
◦ Cold wash
◦ Oxidation bath [1-2gpl Hydrogen Peroxide or
Sodium Perborate] at 60oC
◦ Hot Wash [60-80oC]
◦ Soaping [1-2gpl Non-Ionic soap] at 80-90oC
◦ Hot wash at 60-80oC
◦ Cold Wash
Discharge Printing
Advantages Disadvantages
◦ Background colour is dyed – richer and has ◦ Careful and precise control of discharging agents
greater depth as compared to when blotch required
printed ◦ Costly
◦ Colour blotches with sharp outlines can be ◦ May result in damage to the fabric in the printed
produced which is difficult to obtain by direct area
style
◦ Limits the colours as the dyes that can be
discharged be only used
Discharge Printing
Discharge vs. Resist
DISCHARGE RESIST
Dyeing with solid colour followed by Application of resist agents followed by
discharge printing dyeing with solid colour
Prints are normally brighter and Prints are subdued and lack brightness
sharper and sharpness
Applicable only to the colours that can Applicable to almost all colours
be discharged
Cost is higher Cost is lower
Discharge vs. Resist
DISCHARGE RESIST
Work procedure is relatively simple Work procedure is relatively complex
Requires strong chemical reaction Requires comparatively milder
chemical reaction
Consumes less time as number of Consumes more times as number of
operations are less operations are more
Printing problems such as mesh choke- Problems of mesh choke-up from
up are less insoluble resisting agents is more
Styles of Printing
Transfer Printing – Design printed on transfer
paper, both paper and fabric brought in
contact with each other, design gets
transferred onto the fabric
Transfer Printing
Indirect style of printing
Simple process as it requires only heat
treatment for a very short time
Two stage process
◦ Desired pattern printed on a release paper
◦ Pre-printed release paper placed on the fabric
and heat and pressure is applied to the back of
the paper
Transfer of dye effected at 180oC to 220oC for
20-30 seconds
Fabric is above is its glass transition
temperature
Dye on the paper sublimes and diffuses into
the fabric
Paper is removed and no after treatment is
required to be given on the fabric
Transfer Printing
Only disperse dyes are suitable to be used in
this method
Consequently fabrics that are dyeable by this
dye can only be dyed by this method –
polyester, nylon, acetate
Disperse dyes in the range of 240-350rmm can
be used
Paper selection an important requirement for
successful transfer printing
Good quality paper, non-fibrous, non-
absorbent paper with a smooth surface should
be used
Normally 80% of the dye gets transferred
while 20% remains on the paper
Disperse dye in the form of printing paste is
applied to the paper and the print is allowed
to dry
Dye should stick to the surface till time
transfer process is not effected
Transfer Printing
Machines used for transfer printing
◦ Flat-bed press transfer printing machine
◦ Continuous Calender or Drum transfer printing
machine
Flat-bed press transfer printing machine
◦ Mainly used for garments but fabrics can also be
transfer printed
◦ Process is batchwise or discontinuous
◦ Fabric or garment placed on the press bed
◦ Pre-printed paper placed on the fabric/garment
◦ Hot pressed at 180-220oC for 20-30 seconds
Transfer Printing
Continuous Calender Transfer Printing
Machine
◦ Used for fabrics only
◦ Fabric and pre-printed paper pass in close
contact with each other around a large drum
◦ Drum heated to 220oC and the fabric-paper
composite remain in contact with the drum for
15-20 seconds
◦ And endless blanket under tension helps them
to keep the both in contact
Transfer Printing
Advantages Disadvantages
◦ Simple process does not require expensive ◦ Only applicable to limited types of fabrics
machinery ◦ Limited range of disperse dyes can be used
◦ No after-treatment required – drying, steaming, ◦ Not economical for short runs
curing and developing, washing etc.)
◦ Designs on pre-printed paper cannot be
◦ Less labour intensive modified and last minute colour changes not
◦ Skilled labour not required possible
◦ Fault free printing as any defects in printing are ◦ Lead time higher
rectified on the paper
◦ Low space requirement
◦ Perfect registering and production of intricate
designs possible
Methods of Printing
Block Printing
Roller Printing
Screen Printing
Block Printing
Hand process
Probably the oldest method
Expensive and slow
Pattern carved out in a block
Design placed in the raised portion
For fine lines short pieces of copper strips are
inserted
Block dipped in a shallow pan of dye paste
Block Printing
Block pressed onto cloth and tapped with a Blocks have to be lifted and stamped
mallet to ensure complete contact of the block repeatedly
with the fabric
Size and weight should not be excessive
Successive impression have to be adjusted
accurately Table covered with a resilient pad

For correct registration of the block, pitch pins Resilient pad composed of several layers of
are fixed round the sides of the block which gunny cloth on which a back grey is fixed
print tiny dots on the cloth Fabric sometimes stiffened a little to prevent it
Separate block for each colour from wrinkling
Block Printing
Advantages Disadvantages
◦ Simple to operate ◦ Slow and low output
◦ Does not require elaborate and expensive ◦ Labour intensive
equipment ◦ High cost
◦ Designs in any number of colours or any scale ◦ Difficult to cut fine lines or minute spots without
can be reproduced with ease breaking the grain of the wood
◦ No limiting factor in respect of size ◦ Joining of repeats is difficult and more chances
for defects
◦ Difficult to print larger repeats due to the weight
of the blocks
Roller Printing
Mechanized process
Used to produce prints in bulk quantity
Patterned effect produced with the help of a machine consisting of engraved rollers
Roller Printing
Components of the machine
◦ A large cylinder wrapped with layers of cloth
called lapping
◦ Endless woollen blanket running over the
cylinder
◦ Engraved rollers containing the design
◦ Colour furnishing roller partly immersed in
trough containing the print paste
◦ A doctor blade and lint doctor blade resting on
the engraved roller
Roller Printing
Central cylinder usually made up of steel or Gives elasticity to the fabric being printed
cast iron
A back grey run between the fabric to be
Wound with 8-12 layers of lapping printed and the woollen blanket
Lapping – mixed cotton with linen warp and Prevents the soiling of the blanket by marking-
worsted weft off of the colour from the fabric to be printed
Covered with a endless woollen blanket 30-
50m long
Roller Printing
Engraved roller – 80-200cm long, 12.5-30cm
diameter for solid rollers or 12.5-75cm
diameter for shell rollers
Usually made of copper
Design to be printed is etched out/cut
out/scooped out of the surface
Impression on the fabric obtained by filling the
etched hollows with the colour and impressed
on the fabric
Lines and dots can be cut easily on the roller
without the fear or subsequent damage in
printing
Engraving of the rollers is a distinct and highly
specialized branch of roller printing
Each roller contributes one colour
Each roller consists of its own portion of the
design
All the rollers will collectively produce a
particular design
Roller Printing
E.g. one roller may print all the leaves of a
floral pattern in green
Second roller may print all the roses in red
And third roller may print all the talks in brown
and so on
A colour furnishing roller supplies colour to
the engraved rollers
Usually a wooden roller covered with cotton
cloth and partly dipping into the printing paste
trough
A long fine sharp edged steel blade called the
colour doctor blade rests on the engraved
roller
Scrapes off excess amount of colour from the
engraved roller
Roller Printing
A second blade known as the lint doctor is
mounted on the other side of the engraved
roller
Serves two important functions
Firstly removes loose fibres that may have
been picked up by the engraved roller
Important because if the loose fibre gets
trapped in the engraved roller and colour
doctor blade may give a coloured streak on
the fabric
Secondly the engraved roller may pick up part
of the paste from the fabric coming from the
preceding roller
This colour if not removed will contaminate
the print paste and cause a change in the
colour which will spoil the design
Upto 16 engraved rollers can be used
Adjustment of these many rollers becomes
difficult thus only 4-6 rollers are used
Roller Printing
Advantages Disadvantages
◦ Large quantities of cloth can be economically ◦ Not economical for short runs of fabrics
printed ◦ Difficult to produce blotch designs
◦ No faults in joining of repeats ◦ Even though 16 rollers can be used, the difficulty
◦ No joint marks in alignment of the design and contamination
◦ Fine sharp outlines and half-tone effects can be from the carry-over print paste restricts the
produced by this method number of rollers to 4-6
◦ Repeat of the design limited to the diameter of
the engraved roller
Screen Printing
Involves passing colour paste through a partly Screen Making
blocked mesh screen ◦ Printing screen made from fine mesh screen
fabric of silk, nylon, polyester or metal known as
Colour passes through the screen in the open the bolting cloth
areas (Print areas) ◦ Tightly mounted on a frame or rolled into a
While no colour is applied in the blocked areas cylinder
(Non-print areas) ◦ Coated with a photosensitive lacquer (coating)
◦ Design for a single colour is printed as black on a
clear film
Screen Printing
Screen Making (Contd.)
◦ Film placed on the coated screen and the whole
assembly exposed to light
◦ Lacquer hardens in the clear areas of the film
(non-print areas)
◦ Lacquer in the unexposed black areas remains
water soluble (print areas) and is washed out
◦ Screen baked to harden the remaining lacquer
and is then ready to use
Each colour requires a different screen
Each colour of the design must be precisely
located to ensure proper registration of the
design on the fabric
Types of screen printing
◦ Hand Screen Printing
◦ Automatic Flat-Bed Screen Printing
◦ Rotary Screen Printing
Hand Screen Printing
Done on long tables
Usually 75cm high, 120-160cm wide and 30-
60m long
Table covered with a woollen felt cloth
Fabric to be printed can be fixed on the table
either by pinning it or by gumming with an
adhesive
Cotton back grey is used when the fabric is to
be pinned
Waterproof cover used if the fabric is to be
adhesive binded
Guide rail is fitted along the sides of the tables
to ensure correct registration and alignment of
the design
Adjustable metal stops or pegs are attached to
the rail to ensure proper fit in the repeat of
the design
Electrical heating arrangement to dry the
printed fabric
Hand Screen Printing
Frames are usually 15-20cm wider and longer Made of rubber plates with wooden handles
than the cloth to be printed
Colour paste poured at the bottom end of the
For printing of fine fabrics a fine mesh fabric is screen
used
Drawn over to the other side with the help of
And for printing of coarse fabrics a coarser the squeegee with a uniform pressure
mesh fabrics is used as it gives good coverage
of the colour paste Process repeated 2-3 times whereby the
colour gets transferred to the fabric
For application of colour, squeegees are
required
Hand Screen Printing
Same procedure repeated for the subsequent
colours
Intermediate drying at the table helps in
preventing smudging of the design by the
subsequent screens
Hand Screen Printing
Hand Screen Printing
Advantages
◦ Simple to operate
◦ Does not require elaborate and expensive
equipment
◦ New designs can be produced quickly and
cheaply
◦ Less labour intensive
◦ Economical in production
◦ Repeat size larger than roller printing
◦ Blotch designs can easily printed
◦ Up to 16 colours can be printed
For high production, large number of tables
required occupying large amount of floor
space
Delicate shading and gradation of colour
difficult to obtain
Joint marks at the repeats are often
perceptible
Screens need to be maintained and cleaned
especially fine mesh screens which have a
tendency to get choked
Automatic Flat-Bed Screen
Printing
Mechanization of hand screen printing
In hand screen printing usually the fabric is
stationary and the screens are moved
In automatic flat bed screen printing the
screens are stationary and the fabric is moved
on and endless conveyor belt
Automatic Flat-Bed Screen
Printing
The screens are so mounted that the can be
raised or lowered
Thus when the fabric is to be moved the
screens are raised
And when the fabric is to be printed the
screens are lowered
The application of the colour is automatic with
the help of a motorized squeegee
Automatic Flat-Bed Screen
Printing
Components of the machine
◦ Printing table
◦ Endless conveyor belt
◦ Number of screens
◦ Mechanism for lowering and raising the screens
◦ Motor driven squeegee
◦ Arrangement for gumming the fabric onto the
conveyor belt
◦ Drier
◦ Arrangement for storing and pumping the print
paste
Automatic Flat-Bed Screen
Printing
Fabric to be printed brought onto the printing
table through a feeding arrangement that
gums the fabric to the conveyor belt
Conveyor belts moves intermittently under the
screens and stops at the predetermined
distance of the repeat size
Screens are then lowered on the fabric
Printing paste prepared in tanks and is poured
on the screen throughout the full width/length
of the screen
Colour is applied by the squeegee which
makes one or two strokes over the screen
Screens are lifted again the fabric moves again
Machine consists of 8-16 printing stations
Automatic Flat-Bed Screen
Printing
Automatic Flat-Bed Screen
Printing
Advantages Disadvantages
◦ Higher production as compared to block and ◦ Costly as initial equipment cost is high
hand screen printing ◦ Not suitable for small lengths
◦ Exact registration possible ◦ Half-tone, fine paisley prints and length wise
◦ Less labour intensive stripes not possible
Rotary-Screen Printing
Further improvement over automatic flat-bed
screen printing machine
Instead of flat screens circular metal screens
are used
Arrangement of feeding the print paste and
the squeegee lies inside the circular screens
 Rotary-Screen Printing
Usually built for 6-24 colours
Suitable for printing 160-320cm wide fabric
Can print any type of fabric including knitted fabrics
Speed of the machine can be adjusted from 10-100m/min
Rotary-Screen Printing
Components
◦ Fabric feeding unit
◦ Printing unit
◦ Drying and fixing unit
◦ Print paste feeding unit
◦ Washing unit for conveyor belt
Rotary-Screen Printing
Feeding unit provided with a feed arrangement, a selvedge alignment unit and a continuous
gluing unit which gums the fabric on the conveyor belt
Alternatively a vacuum system may be employed under the belt
Gluing arrangement can omitted
In the printing unit each of the screens are individually driven
Rotary-Screen Printing
All screens fit perfectly independent of the
movement of the fabric or the blanket
Perfect fitting of the design is thus obtained
consistently
Possible to fit screens automatically whenever
the machine stops, so no stop marks are
produced
Change of pattern can be achieved quickly
Rotary-Screen Printing
For changing and washing the screens can be easily dismantled
Length of conveyor belt considerably shorter than used for the flat-bed printing unit
High efficiency washing and drying unit for the conveyor belt provided under the printing table
If vacuum principle is used then no washing required
Rotary-Screen Printing
Printing paste is fed by pumps from the
reservoir to the screens
Level of print paste inside the screen
automatically controlled
Rotary-Screen Printing
Transfer of printing paste through the screens
achieved by specially designed squeegees
Rod type or flexible blade type activated by an
electromagnet or hydraulic system
Rotary-Screen Printing
Subsequent to printing the fabric is passed through a hot air dryer to dry the fabric
Dried fabric then sent for subsequent fixation treatment
Alternatively a fixation unit may be attached to the printing unit to achieve total continuous
operation
Rotary-Screen Printing
Advantages Disadvantages
◦ Highest production ◦ Not economical for short runs
◦ Joint marks totally absent ◦ Size of the repeat limited to 65cm which is less
◦ Perfect registration of the design with respect to than that of hand screen printing
different colours
◦ Half-tone effects and vertical lines can be
produced
◦ Prints free from smudging which is quite severe
in roller printing
Other Printing Methods
Duplex Printing
◦ Printing on both sides of the fabrics
Digital Printing
Primarily developed for printing on paper Computer control colour, amount and location
Developed for printing on textiles Streams of ink ejected at a high velocity
Machine consists of fabric feeding system, Pressure enough to ensure proper penetration
cloth guide system, moving inkjet printing of the dyes into the surface of the fabric
heads and take-up system
Further vacuum on the reverse side of the
Jets in the print head controlled by valves fabric also ensures proper penetration of the
dye in the fabric
Micro-drops of colour liquid ink are applied
through tiny nozzles on the fabric surface at
precise points
Digital Printing
Earlier machines operate with four basic
colours – yellow, magenta, cyan and black
Posed a challenge with mixing of colour on
textiles
Machines with more colours developed – 8 to
16 colours
Colour overlap to give full range of visual
effects with half tones
Colour is created or mixed right on the fabric
Droplets are very fine about 720 drops/inch
Ink jet release technologies
◦ Continuous Inkjet (CIJ)
◦ Drop On Demand (DOD)
Printing speed varies from 15-200m/hr
Has profound effect on small-lot, custom
printing and sample printing
Used extensively for sampling before going for
bulk production runs
Digital Printing – Advantages
Ability to use large number of colours
Application to wide range of substrates
Excellent reproduction of images especially
continuous-tone images
Extremely complex designs can be produced
with ease
Unlimited repeat size
Ability to print engineered designs that cross
seam lines
Direct printing of fabric with the help of CAD
Elimination of colour separation films and
screens
Quick design change, reduced lead time
Savings in time, labour
Convenience of data handling
Eco-friendly and clean technology
Low energy consumption
Economical for production of small lots
Digital Printing - Disadvantages
Low productivity
Slower production speed
High equipment cost
Not suitable for all dye classes
Useful smooth fabric surface (not for velvets etc.)
Fabric need to be pre-treated with a thickener
before printing
Problems with image resolution and crispness
Limitations of fabric width, fastness of print and
changes in fabric hand
Digital Printing
Other Printing Methods
Electrostatic Printing
◦ Similar to electrostatic flocking
◦ Prepared screen covered with a powdered dye
mixed with a carrier that has dielectric
properties
◦ Screen positioned about ½” from the fabric
passed through an electrostatic field
◦ Dye powder pulled onto the material
◦ Fixed by heat
Foil Printing
◦ Fabric printed with a special adhesive
◦ Dried and partially cured
◦ Foil combines a polyester film with a heat
sensitive release containing a very thin layer of
aluminium and a clear or tinted laquer
◦ Metallic foil heated on heat transfer press
◦ Foil bonds only where the adhesive pattern
exists on the fabric
Other Printing Methods
Flock Printing
◦ Technique of adhering minute pieces of fibre
◦ Adhesive applied by roller printing technique
◦ Flock of cotton, wool, viscose, nylon or acrylic
applied to the fabric in a manner that it causes
to adhere in an upright position
◦ Produces a pile like, velvet textured design
◦ Flock usually of coloured fibre thereby adding to
the decorative appeal
Other Printing Methods
Flock Printing (Contd.) Flock Printing (contd.)
◦ Flocking accomplished by beating the underside ◦ Fibres get more deeply attached and therefore
of the fabrics with rotating multisided bars more permanently attached
◦ Fabric vibrations produced by the beaters cause ◦ Other methods – Giroud Process, Electrostatic
the flock to flow over the surface of the fabric Principle
and stand erect
◦ Continued vibration caused the erect fibres to
penetrate deeper into the adhesive
◦ As more fibres fall on the already erect fibres
they become similarly oriented
◦ Build up a pile effect
Burn-out prints
Used for producing designs on blended fabrics
One component of the blend is dissolved in
the printed areas
Usually practiced on polyester/cotton or
polyester/wool blend
Polyester/cotton blend fabrics treated with
sulphuric acid to dissolve cotton leaving
behind polyester skeleton
Polyester/wool blend fabrics treated with
sodium hydroxide to dissolve wool again
leaving behind skeleton
Spray Printing
Design imparted by spraying of colours in a controlled manner through nozzles
Originally developed for carpets
Extended to printing of other thick fabrics like blankets, towels, corduroy, velvets and flockings
Rows of very fine jets are used to force the dye into a fabric
About 10-20 jets/inch are used
Operation of jets controlled by a computer
Jets can be stationary or traversing type
Other techniques
Khadi Printing
◦ Dyed fabric printed with a print paste containing
titanium dioxide
◦ Produces a white effect on colour background
◦ Addition of coloured pigment, a coloured khadi
can also be printed
◦ Gives white or coloured attractive raised
patterns resembling discharge or resist effect
◦ Process simple and economical
 Khadi Print
Recipe for White Khadi
TiO2 [White pigment] 30% Print
Binder [Film forming polymer] 30%
Fixer CCL Resin [Cross-linking agent] 1-2% Dry
Glycerine [Anti-choking agent] 2-3%
Urea [Hygroscopic agent] 2-5%
Fluorescent Brightener 0.5% Cure
Acid liberating catalyst – Diammonium 0.5-1% • At 150oC for 4-5 min when DAP is
Phosphate or Catalyst LCP used
Kerosene Emulsion paste Balance • At 110oC for 4-5 min when Catalyst
LCP is used
Total 100 parts
Damask Print
Similar to Khadi print
Use of white pigment like titanium dioxide over lustrous fabric like rayon to produce a matt
pattern
Other techniques
Metallic Print
◦ Metallic powders used to obtain gold and silver
effect in printing
◦ Usually produced on dark ground
◦ Bronze or brass powder used for gold printing
effects
◦ Aluminium powder used for silver printing
effects
◦ Copper powder used for copper printing effects
Metallic Prints
Recipe
Metallic powder 15-20%
Print
Metal binder 80-85%
Fixer 1-2%
Glycerine 2-5%
Dry at moderate
temperatures (80oC)

Cure ay 150oC for 5min

Metallic Prints
Binder should have good film strength, good
adhesive tack and should be chemically inert
Disadvantages
◦ Gives harsh feel
◦ Frequent choking problem
◦ Prints get tarnished during use

Acid catalyst used to prevent tarnishing

Other techniques
Rubber Prints
◦ Copolymers of vinyl chloride with butadiene or
polyurethane used instead of only vinyl chloride
◦ Produces a flexible print
◦ Overcomes the problem of cracking of the film
faced with only vinyl chloride based prints
Magic Prints
◦ Liquid crystals that change colour with
temperature incorporated in the print paste
◦ In normal sunlight, the temperature is higher
and no design is visible
◦ In shade or at cooler place, the design becomes
visible
◦ Depth of colour increases with the decrease in
temperature
◦ Colours are sensitive even to body temperatures
Other techniques
Plastic Prints
◦ Thermoplastic inks
◦ Inks produced by mixing vinyl chloride
dispersions with high boiling point organic
solvents, plasticizers and pigments
◦ Inks subjected to heat causing the resin to soften
and melting together to form a continuous film
on the fabric
◦ Can also be polymerized to make it more
permanent
Advantages
◦ High opaque build up and flexibility
◦ Give bright colours on dark grounds
◦ Better fastness of prints
◦ Can be used for all kind of fabrics and surfaces
◦ Plastisol inks are easy to use
Disadvantages
◦ Cannot withstand dry-cleaning and high
temperature ironing
Other techniques
Foam or Puff prints Foam or Puff prints
◦ Used for printing of raised or puffed prints ◦ Coloured effects can be obtained by using
◦ Print pastes consists of a blowing agent pigments
◦ Decomposes to release nitrogen gas on ◦ Direct mixing of pigments in the foam binder
application of heat results in non-uniform prints
◦ After printing, drying at 90-100oC, cured at 150- ◦ Fluorescent pigment first pasted with printing
160oC for 15-30 sec binder and then subsequently mixed with foam
binder
◦ Blowing agent decomposes to release gas
causing the polymeric film to be raised
◦ Volume increases by 50 times
◦ Overall effect resembles a raised embroidery
pattern
Other techniques
Pearl Prints
◦ Incorporation on pearlescent salts like lead
carbonate, bismuth oxide chloride, bismuth Print
trichloride etc.
◦ Offers shine and lustre without the harshness of
metallic prints
◦ Can be used as white pearl in self or in
combination with pigments to get multi- Dry at 120oC
coloured effects or metallic effects with soft feel

Cure at 150oC for 4-

5min
Other techniques
Glitter Prints
◦ Particle size of glitter powder much bigger than
metallic or powder prints
◦ Effect of glitter more prominent as compared to
metallic or pearl prints
◦ Two types of glitter – metallized polyester film
glitter and anodized aluminium glitter
◦ Colour of the metallized polyester film glitter is
not resistant to solvents
◦ Anodized aluminium glitter have the hiding
power – can be used on white and dark grounds
◦ Effect is much better on dark grounds
Glitter Prints (contd.)
◦ Three application techniques
◦ Direct printing using suitable binder systems
◦ Mesh of the screen should be large enough to
allow the passage of glitter particles in the form
of the design
◦ Second method involves printing of blank
transparent binder paste
◦ Followed by sprinkling of the glitter powder
through screen or directly while the print is still
in wet condition
◦ Subsequent drying and curing fixes the glitter
print
Other techniques
Glitter Prints (contd.)
◦ Third process involves film release transfer
technique
◦ Glitter embedded in the form of design on a release
paper between two transparent layers of
thermoplastic polymer film
◦ Design transferred on to the fabric under the action
of heat and pressure
Leathery Prints
◦ Use of binder based on polyurethane
◦ Produce shiny and leathery effect with some
stretchability
◦ Can also be used to produce a 3D raised effect on
garments by using a metal gauge screen
Engineered Prints
◦ Prints that have two or more distinct designs
located in separate areas of the fabric but are
part of the same garment
◦ E.g. front and back to be printed with blue and
white polka dots but the sleeves to be printed
with blue and white stripes
◦ Engineered prints will produce both the design
in the same bolt of the fabric
Other techniques
Duplex Prints
◦ Printing of the fabric on both sides
◦ Fabric may be passed through a roller printing in
two separate operations
◦ Or passed through a duplex printing in a single
operation
◦ By skilful placement and registration the print
can be made to simulate for a woven design
◦ Limited end uses like reversible sheeting, table
covers, reversible jackets and vests
Embossed Prints
◦ Produced at a calendering machine
◦ Calender roller has a raised or lowered design
engraved on it
◦ Pattern is pushed or shaped into cloth when the
fabric is passed between the rollers
◦ Durable design if printed on thermoplastic fibres
that have been resin treated
◦ Provide surface texture at a lower cost than
woven design
Other Techniques – Embossed
Prints
Pigment Printing
Composition of print paste Pigments
◦ Pigment ◦ coloured or colourless substances
◦ Binder ◦ Inert and insoluble in any media
◦ Thickener ◦ No affinity for the substrates on which they are
◦ Cross-linking agents applied
◦ Catalysts ◦ Supplied as dispersions and pastes which contain
surfactants to keep them in stable dispersions
◦ Dispersing Agents
◦ Particle size of the pigment lies between 0.1-
◦ Other auxiliaries 1µm
Pigment Printing
Pigments Binders
◦ Metal pigments are used to imitate gold and ◦ Film forming material having high molecular
silver effects weight
◦ Titanium dioxide and zinc oxide are used as ◦ Formed of suitable monomers like methyl
white pigments acrylate and butadiene
◦ Carbon black used as black pigment ◦ Crosslink when exposed to heat to form a
◦ Fluorescent or luminous pigments also continuous film
introduced ◦ Film should be colourless, smooth, soft, even
and resistant to mechanical stress
◦ Effect the handle of the print
Pigment Printing
Binders
◦ Fastness of the print like washing fastness,
rubbing fastness, dry-cleaning, bleaching and
perspiration depend on the binders
◦ E.g. Acramin SLN, Primal TR-42, Primal FC-44
Thickener
◦ Thickeners like gums and starches cannot be
used in pigment printing
◦ Remain water soluble even after fixation of the
pigment print
◦ Form a hard film leading to stiff handle
◦ Get removed when washed subsequently thus
removing the pigment also
Pigment Printing
Thickener
◦ Emulsion thickener are used
◦ Two types of emulsion – Water-in-oil and Oil-in-
water
◦ Have good viscosity
◦ Give better colour yield and brightness
◦ No effect on handle and fastness properties
Disadvantages of Emulsion Thickeners
◦ Large quantity of kerosene (60 to 65% of the
paste) is required for printing
Disadvantages of Emulsion Thickeners
◦ Causes obnoxious fumes during curing, which
pollute the atmosphere and infringe pollution
regulations
◦ The price of petroleum products including
kerosene is increasing, which increases the cost
of printing
◦ It is hazardous to use kerosene, as a number of
curing chambers have been blown up in the past
due to the use of kerosene
Pigment Printing
For avoiding these problems, fully synthetic
thickeners are used
Examples: Helizarin (BASF), Calipool 1152
(Calico chemicals), Lutex U (BASF), Neopralac
Advantages of Synthetic Thickeners
◦ No pollution problems
◦ No hazard of explosion
◦ No crust formation
Advantages of Synthetic Thickeners
◦ Better Fastness
◦ Lower cost of printing
Disadvantages
◦ Handle is adversely affected
◦ Unstable in nature
◦ Contain acid groups which have to be neutralized
with ammonia, which is an irritant for the skin
and eyes
Pigment Printing
Catalysts
◦ Used to accelerate cross-linking of the binder
and to facilitate the reaction between the binder
and the substrate.
◦ Acid liberating salts, which liberate acid during
curing.
◦ E.g. Diammonium phosphate, Ammonium
sulphate, Ammonium nitrate.
Crosslinking agents
◦ Used when the binder is not self-reacting.
◦ E.g. Dimethylol urea, Dimethylol ethylene urea,
Hexamethylol melamine
Dispersing agents and poly-alcohols are usually
incorporated in the paste to stabilize the
emulsion and prevent it from drying
Pigment Printing
Advantages of Pigment Printing Disadvantages
◦ Least costly – Simple to apply, least amount of ◦ Loose depth of shade gradually and become
processing, No after treatments (steaming & more faded look with each laundering
Washing). ◦ Poor fastness to crocking especially in dark
◦ Pigments produces bright, rich colours colours
◦ Applicable to all fibres
◦ Good to excellent fastness to light and dry
cleaning
◦ Widely used for drapery and curtain fabrics
◦ Excellent lot-to-lot shades matching attainable
Print Paste Composition
Essential ingredients ◦ Mild oxidizing agents
◦ Dyestuff ◦ Acids and alkalis
◦ Solvents ◦ Carriers
◦ Hygroscopic agents ◦ Binders
◦ Wetting agents ◦ Preservatives
◦ Thickeners
Various components used should be
◦ Oxidizing agents compatible with each other and
◦ Reducing agents
◦ Catalysts
◦ Defoaming agents or defoamers
Print Paste Composition
Dyestuff
◦ Factors affecting selection of dyestuff – Nature
of the fibre, Printing technique used, Fastness
requirements, Shade requirement
Solvents
◦ Amount of water in print paste low
◦ Dyes tend to precipitate out or agglomerate
◦ Additional chemicals added to assist dissolution
of dye and prevent its precipitation and
agglomeration
◦ E.g. ethylene glycol, diethylene glycol, tetralene,
decalene etc.
Print Paste Composition
Hygroscopic Agents
◦ Absorb sufficient water during steaming to
enable diffusion of dye molecules into the fibre
◦ Optimum quantities should be used
◦ Excess quantity will lead to spreading of the dye
◦ Lower than optimum quantities will lead to
lighter prints
◦ E.g Urea, Glycerine, Cresylic Acid, Acetin etc.
Wetting Agents
◦ Used to obtain smooth paste without the
formation of any lumps
◦ Lumps if allowed to remain get deposited on the
fabric during printing producing dark spots
◦ E.g. Turkey Red Oil
Thickeners
Most important component of the print paste Should be fairly stable
formulation
E.g. starches, gums, sodium alginates, carboxy
Form an viscous emulsion that prevent the methyl cellulose, emulsion thickeners, methyl
spreading of the dye beyond the boundaries and ethyl cellulose etc.
of the design
Sodium alginates are highly compatible with
Has to be compatible with other ingredients of reactive dyes are extensively used for printing
the paste with reactive dyes
Should have no affinity for the dye
Should be easily removed during washing
Print Paste Composition
Oxidizing Agents Reducing Agents
◦ Used to develop the final colour of vat dyes and ◦ Used mainly in discharge printing
other dyes ◦ Sodium hydrosulphite is used in the printing of
◦ E.g. sodium dichromate, sodium bromate, vat dyes
potassium ferrocyanide, chlorate, nitrates, ◦ Rongolite C (sodium sulphoxylate formaldehyde)
nitrites etc used for azoic, direct, acid and reactive dyed
grounds
◦ Safolin is used for disperse dyes
◦ Sodium bisulphite and tin salts can be used
Print Paste Composition
Catalysts Defoaming Agents
◦ To accelerate the development of colour by ◦ Some colours and chemicals froth during paste
oxidizing agents and reduce the risk of attack to making and printing
the fibre ◦ Wetting agents cause considerable foam
◦ E.g. potassium ferrocyanide, copper sulphide, ◦ Produce lighter shades and produce faulty prints
ammonium vandate
◦ Commercial defoaming agents are used e.g.
Perminal KB, Emulsified Pine oil, Silicones
Acids & Alkalis
Depends on the class of dyes used and the type of the fibre to be printed
Acids used are non-volatile organic acids such as citric acid, lactic acid, tartaric acid glycolic acid
acetic or formic acid may be used in few cases
Strong acids are used as their ammonium salts like ammonium chloride, nitrate, sulphocyanide
and dihydrogen phosphate
Liberate corresponding acids after ammonia evolved our during steaming
Alkalies used include sodium or potassium hydroxides, carbonate, bicarbonate, silicate,
ammonium hydroxide and triethanolamine
Carriers
Accelerate the fixation of the dyes on the fabric
Act by swelling the fibre to improve dyestuff penetration into the fabric
Improve the levelness of shade otherwise caused by fluctuations in the conditions used for
fixation i.e. fluctuation in temperature, time and humidity
Mainly used for fixing disperse dyes on polyester and its blends for temperature below 105oC
p-phenyl phenol is applied on polyester, thiourea on polyamide, resorcinol is applied for
polyamide, cotton and acrylic
Binders
Mainly ingredient for pigment printing
Basically film forming material having high molecular weight
Binder film should be colourless, smooth, soft, even and resistant to mechanical stress
Fastness of the print like washing fastness, rubbing fastness, dry-cleaning, bleaching and
perspiration depend on the binders
E.g. Acramin SLN, Primal TR-42, Primal FC-44, Melamine formaldehyde
Print Paste Composition
Mild Oxidizing Agents Preservatives
◦ Used to prevent reduction of dyes during ◦ Print paste loose viscosity due to the action of
steaming bacteria and fungus
◦ Otherwise the dyes may get partially destroyed ◦ Preservatives prevent decomposition of
due to reducing fumes thickeners
◦ E.g. Resist Salt, Albatex BD, Ludigol (Sodium ◦ E.g. Salicyclic acid, Phenol, Cresol Sodium
metanitro benzene sulphonate), sodium chlorate Benzoate