University of Sheffield

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Human Factors Case Study

AIRCRAFT SEATS

Michelle Hirlam
April 2002
Introduction and Background
This case study examines the ergonomics / human factors issues regarding
civilian passenger aircraft seats.

Seats are the most critical component within the aircraft cabin interior as 90-
95% of a passenger's flying time is spent in his/her seat.

History of Seat Design Philosophy

1930’s 1980’s 2000’s

1930’s - 40’s 1960’s - 1990’s AIR TRAVEL TODAY – TREND BACK

EARLY COMMERCIAL FOR THE MASSES. BOEING
PASSENGER AIRCRAFT- INTRODUCE POPULAR 737
FEW SEATS , SPACIOUS & IN 1968. - MINIMAL SPACE
LUXURIOUS FOR ALL BETWEEN SEATS TO FIT AS
PASSENGERS MANY PASSENGERS AS
POSSIBLE. INTRODUCTION
OF ECONOMY CLASS SEATS.
TOWARDS GIVING
PASSENGERS MORE
ROOM - AIRLINES ARE
REMOVING SEATS FROM
THEIR CABINS TO
SATISFY AND WIN
CUSTOMERS
Key Design Issues
Two main areas of design influenced by Human Factors:

COMFORT AND HEALTH & SAFETY

The comfort of the passenger is Comfortable

extremely important for all journeys, posture –
but especially on long-haul flights Armrest – Lumber support
which may be up to 16 hours long. Correct height /
width, & material Sufficient leg room
The safety of all passengers must be
paramount. Quick and easy exit from
the cabin must be assured in an
emergency evacuation. Upholstery – Headrest –
Thermal comfort Correct height &
angle
Health problems related to air travel:
• Low back pain
• Joint stiffness Footrest –
Correct seat Adjustable /
• Deep Vein Thrombosis width correct angle &
(not proven link) Seat Recline distance from
seat

Overall comfort is dependent on many factors - most are related to how well the seat
matches the physical dimensions of the passenger.
Key Design Issues - Anthropometrics
To design in terms of user comfort –
a knowledge of ANTHROPOMETRICS is required.
Many of the issues which affect the comfort of the passenger are directly related to.the
correct sizing of the seat. It is therefore crucial to use the anthropometrical data .relating
to the target users.

Aircraft seats are generally designed for 5%ile female to 95%ile male. The .population the
data is taken from depends largely on the routes the aircraft is .intended to fly - Co-
determinants of anthropometry being ethnic origin, geographic region, socio-economic status,
and health.
A population’s anthropometric data alters over time, this is an important issue as .many of
today’s aircraft have been in service for over a decade, and were often designed using out of
date data.
Increasing percentage of elderly population- dimensions can change considerably in .terms
of stature. Weight gain in later life is also very common, especially among women.

SOME KEY HUMAN DIMENSIONS

Knee to buttock length Sitting height
Shoulder width Knee to ankle height
Thigh width Shoulder to elbow height
Anthropometrics Research
It is important that research is based on the most up-to-date and relevant anthropometric
data as different populations have different characteristics.

Research into appropriate dimensions for aircraft seats has been carried out in the past
based on anthropometric data available at the time. [8]

Dimension McClelland Stern Edwards & Cumberland and

(Minimum unless otherwise stated) (1986) (1988) Edwards (1990) Bowey (1950)
* 410 410 380 305-356
Seat cushion height (floor to front seat edge)
Seat cushion width - 460 400 483
Seat cushion width between armrest 460 460 - 457
Seat cushion width including armrest - - 565 -
Seat cushion length 400 410 432 470
Armrest height above compressed seat 230 - - -
Armrest height above uncompressed seat - 165 200 190.5
Armrest width 60 50 - -
Backrest height - 710 - -
Backrest width - 520 - -
Backrest length (seat pan to top edge) 600 - - -
Aisle width to height of 635mm - - 380(508+) -

Guidelines given for aircraft seat dimensions in previous research and publications based on anthropometric data.
– Taken from Joint Aviation Authorities Review. [8]

A study has also been made in to the optimum seat depth. – It highlights that the relatively large seat depths of
aeroplane seats contribute to the feelings of discomfort when sitting for long periods of time .[6 ]
Key Design Issues – Postural Comfort
Sitting posture is directly related to comfort. Our
bodies, particularly our spines, were not designed to
sit in chairs for hours on end.
Sitting causes straightening of the natural curvature of
the spine which results in a constant strain on
vertebral discs and the the back muscles. Sitting in a
relaxed way causes 35% greater stress on our discs
than when we stand. [7,18,22]
Prolonged sitting results in muscle fatigue, stiffness –
causes of discomfort.
To try to alleviate this problem, seats should be
shaped to offer lumber support, ideally this should be
adjustable.
Also the curvature of the lumber region becomes more
lordotic as a person reclines, therefore seat spacing
should allow for extensive seat recline.

As sitting has been shown to put very large

strains on the back, when designing an A well designed chair should: [7,18]

aircraft seat in which passengers will be sat

for extended periods of time, it is important
that the research on best sitting postures be
utilised to minimise the stress in the back as
much as possible.
•Provide support for your back so it can .maintain
its natural lordotic curve.
•Give you the freedom to change your position easily
and often without the loss of comfort or support.
•Distribute your weight evenly.
Key Design Issues – Comfort Overview
PUBLISHED HUMAN FACTORS DESIGN
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
COMFORTABLE AIRPLANE SEATS.[23]

•A 5 degree seat-pan pitch with a 105

degree .seat-to-back rest angle for normal
upright .position.
•A 45 degree seat recline over a continuous
.range.
•A backrest height of 24 inches to the base
of .the headrest.
•A minimum seat-width clearance of 19
.inches between armrests.
•A seat-pan that automatically adjusts to a
.horizontal position as the backrest is reclined.
•Separate 2 inch-wide armrests for side-
by-.side passengers or one 5.25 inch armrest
to .be shared by the passengers.
•A seat clearance of 12-13 inches to
provide .ample leg space.
Key Design Issues – Health & Safety
•Passengers must be able to exit seat safely in
.the case of an emergency evacuation.
(Figure shows potential tripping hazard of foot supports)

•Passengers must be able to adopt the

brace .position in the event of an emergency
landing.
(Figure shows recommended crash brace position CAA 1995)

DEEP VEIN THROMBOSIS (DVT)

DVT is a condition in which blood clots form in the deep
veins, usually of the leg. It is associated with : reduction in
blood flow, changes in blood viscosity and damage of the
vein wall.
While there is only circumstantial evidence to suggest a
causation link between prolonged sitting in aircraft and the
occurrence of DVT – it is recommended that sufficient
legroom be provided to allow movement (stretching) and
changes in posture throughout the journey, and that
possible benefits may be gained by wearing support
stockings. However it is generally thought that DVT occurs
most commonly in those people who have an existing
disposition to blood clots before they fly. [3 11,16]
Other Issues
•Location of entertainment consol
–Should be in correct field of vision
–seat back locations better than overhead
screens.

•Location of reading light

–To illuminate reading material avoiding eye strain but not disturb . .
other passengers.

•Height of seat backs[5]

–To avoid feelings of claustrophobia.

•Location of life jacket[5]

–Easily accessible, yet positioned discretely – out of direct sight.
Current Standards
• The standards for aircraft seats, the FAR Section 25.853 and the JAR25.785[10] outline
criteria for the design of aircraft seats in terms of structural integrity and safety. They do
not however specify any features of the seat to ensure passenger comfort.

• Currently Civil Aviation Authority is the only regulatory body to proscribe minimum space for seated passengers. -
C.A.A. Airworthiness Notice 64 (AN64)[9]

• Applies only to British registered aircraft over 5700kg MTWA which carry 20 passengers or more. Took effect in
1989.

• The standard is concerned only with the safety aspects of ingress and egress from the seat, in terms of the space
available to the passenger to do this. - Specifies that a fully loaded aircraft
must be evacuated within and 90sec.

Defines 3 critical dimensions

– based on anthropometric data for 5th %ile female to 95th %ile male population.
– aimed at minimising the effects of low seat pitches on the comfort of the seat and the . .. . ease of egress
from the seats.

Does not define minimum foot room - a foot clearance envelope

i.e. room for feet to ensure health sitting posture and to avoid seat structures when . . . . . . . . accessing/exiting
the seats.
AN64 – Critical Minimum Dimensions
Defines 3 critical dimensions
– Based on anthropometric data for 5 th % ile female
. to 95th % ile male population.
– Aimed at minimising the effects of low seat .…
pitches on the ability of passengers to fit into the …
seats, and on the ease of egress from the seats.

There are no specific standards relating to designing seating

to ensure passenger comfort, however a seat which fits well
a passengers bodily dimensions will generally ensure a base
level of comfort.

Dimension Description Minimum

A Minimum distance between the back support cushion of a seat and the back 660mm
of the seat or other fixed structure in front of the seat. (26 inches)
B The minimum distance between a seat and the seat or other fixed structure in 17 mm
front. (7inches)
C The minimum vertically projected distance between seat rows or between a 76mm
seat and any fixed structure forward of the seat. (3inches)
Review of AN64
In 2001 the Joint Aviation Authorities conducted a review of the minimum
dimensions stated in the AN64 with relevance to today’s population. [8]
Objective of the review was to evaluate both the scope of the AN64 and the
minimum dimensional values stated in it.

•Why was a review needed?

–Generally increasing body dimensions within European and US populations.
•Secular growth of population. Average secular increase in statue in the order of 10mm
per . .decade in Europe and N.America. [7] Western populations are also showing an increase
in .breadth – an estimated 22% of US population are ‘obese’. [14]
–Increase in the number of “Third Agers” (55+ years of age).
•It is predicted that by 2020 there will be as many old people as there are
.younger ones. The size and abilities of adults changes as they age.
–Increasing number of long duration flights.
•Sitting comfort is highly dependent on the length of time in the sitting posture.
–High density seating.
•As airlines more for more seats on each flight, passenger space is compromised.

As with the CAA’s AN64, the JAA report was concerned only with the safety of passengers, but
in addition to the AN64, considers the safety aspects of brace position, and health problems
associated with prolonged sitting.
J.A.A. Conclusions
• Where safety is concerned the critical dimensions should be increased to cover the 1st%ile to 99th%ile range. This will also anticipate
gradual future growth of population.

• Current requirements for dimension A will only accommodate up to 77th%ile of European population. Dimensions B and C, even fewer
passengers

• Dimension A should be increased to 28.2” (for up to 95th % ile European passenger). Ideally dimension A should be 29.4” (for up to 99th%ile
world)

• Dimension A should be measured with the seat in front in the fully reclined position, current AN64 requirements measure all seats in upright
position.

• Dimension B was found to be unacceptable for both larger and smaller passengers. Recommended minimum at armrest level of 9-10”
and 8.3” at seat cushion level.

• Dimension C would need to be increased from 3” to 12” to allow a 95th%ile passenger to stand upright between rows of seats.

• Minimum dimensions for the depth and width of the seat together with the armrest should be specified as these are important for seat
access and spacing issues.

• Seat dimensions should allow for use by older passengers as the proportion of older people in the population is growing significantly.
Application of Key Issues
The extent to which the human factors issues have been integrated into the design of
aircraft seats is largely dependent on the type of seat.

Seats broadly fall in to two categories:

ECONOMY CLASS or BUSINESS / FIRST CLASS

Seat pitch in Business Class is on average 75 % more than in Economy Class,

across major airlines.[20]
Seat pitch in First Class is on average 260 % more than in Economy Class,
across major airlines.[20]

Smaller commuter aircraft (50-70 seats) traditionally have smaller seats.

- Due to the shorter flight times, these aircraft are generally less comfortable
. as seats have less recline, less support and less
adjustability.
 Economy Seats
•Limited leg room – low seat
pitch.
•Narrow seats.
•Narrow armrests.
•No footrests.
•Headrests – poorly positioned, .
fixed.
•Limited recline.
•Lack good lower back support
to lumber region.
•Not enough room to open a
laptop computer.
•Seat support legs can cause
passengers to place their feet in
the aisle, posing a tripping
hazard.
Business/First Class Seats
• Ample leg room.

• Wider seats.

• Room for laptop .

•.computer.

• 6ft Fully flat beds.

• Adjustable footrests.

• Adjustable headrests.

• Wide armrests.

• Improved lumber support.

•Can apply pressure to the back of

calf . during sleep.
Conclusions
•Seats have exacting standards for strengths, weight, and fire resistance [10], but only in the UK for issues . .
.relating to the allowable space given to passengers between the seats.
•There are no specific standards pertaining to comfort.
•Aircraft cabin interiors are not generally designed with human factors uppermost, particularly economy class.
•Economy class seating design is dominated by economics – seats and spaces between them are of
.minimum size to allow maximum number of passengers.
•Business and First Class seating places greater emphasis on ergonomic / human factors features.

Trend going into 21st century is the upgrading of economy class sections by
the removal of seats to increase seat pitch.
Consumer pressure is starting to force airlines into giving human factors
issues higher priority in the budget / economy sector.
While business and first class seating has always been of a much higher
standard than economy class, and has incorporated many ergonomic / human
factors features in it’s design, airlines are now competing with even more new
features. Fully flat beds being quite a recent introduction on some aircraft.

American Airlines is increasing the seat pitch for all of it’s economy class seats across it’s entire fleet. Also fitting new seats
with six way adjustable headrests and power port access and telephones in every row.[19] Other major airlines with doubtless be
quick to follow as customers are increasingly choosing airlines based on the quality of their economy class seating
References
Journal & Newspaper Articles
[1]Barkla, D. The estimation of Body Measurements of
British Population in relation to Seat Design. Ergonomics.
4, p123-232. 1961
[2]“Closing the Comfort Gap” Paul Sillers Business
Aviation & Regional Transport, May 1992
[3] Burnand, K., Smith, A. Air travel and Deep Vein
Thrombosis – The London Experience. Cardiovasular
Surgery. 9(2) p146-147(2001)
[4]Call for Airlines to Think Bigger” Frary M.
The Times Newspaper – Issue: February 21, 2001
[5]Cumberland, C.H., Bowey, G.S. Passenger Seats for
Aircraft : A survey of the considerations to be borne in
mind in designing furniture for maximum safety and
comfort. Aircraft Engineering. XXII (259) p250-255.
(1950)
[6]Goonetilleke, R.S., Feizhou, S. A Methodology to
Determine the Optimum Seat Depth. International Journal
of Industrial Ergonomics. 27 p207-217 (2001)
[7] Vergara,M., Page,A. Relationship Between Comfort
and Back Posture and Mobility in Sitting-Posture. Applied
Ergonomics. 33 p1-8. 2002
Standards and Institute Reports.
[8]Anthropometric Study to Update Minimum Aircraft
Seating Standards. Prepared for Joint Aviation Authorities.
July 2001.
www.ice.co.uk/transport/CAA/Passenger%20seat%20spac
e.pdf
[9]Civil Aviation Authority Airworthiness Notice No.64
www.srg.caa.co.uk/publications/cap455_airworthiness_not
ices.pdf
[10] JAR 25.785. Aviation Regulation for Large Aircraft.
Joint Aviation Authorities.
www.jaa.nl/jar/jar/355000/355303/355303.pdf
[11] Travellers Thrombosis- Review of DVT Associated
with Travel. Aerospace Medical Association- Air
Transport Medicine Committee. April 2001
References
Websites
[12]“Back Care on Airplanes”. Dr.Hedge
www.spineuniverse.com/index.html?http&&&www.spine
universe.com/work/proergo/ergo101sit.htm
[13] Balanced sitting posture on forward sloping
seat.A.C.Mandal. Copenhagen
http://w1.1585.telia.com/~u139600392/
[14] CNN Website.
www.cnn.com/HEALTH/9805/28/obesity/
[15]Continental aircraft accessibility-moveable arm rests.
http://www.continental.com/dash/build_dash.asp?
tis_01_05_03_05
[16] “DVT to Shape Aircraft Seat Design” 18th Sept. 2001
http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/uk/wales/newsid_1549000
/1549458.stm
[17]“Goodrich and NuBax introduce improved airline
seating” 21 June 2001
http://defence-
data.com/paris2001/pagepa1096.htm
[18] Investigation of Spinal Curvature While Changing
One’s Posture During Sitting. Faiks,F., Reineche, S.
http://www.bankandoffice.com/knowledge/spinecurve.htm
[19]Skytrax-The world Airline Site. American airline seats.
http://www.airlinequality.com/main/American_highlight.ht
m
[20] Skytrax- Airline seat pitch data web site.
http://www.airlinequality.com/Product/seat_intro.htm
Books
[21] Eveleth,P.B., Tanner, J.M. Worldwide Variation in
Human Growth. 2nd Ed. Cambridge University Press, U.K.
[22]Kroemer,K., Kroemer,H, Kroemer-Elbert,K.
Ergonomics. How to design for ease and efficiency. 2nd Ed.
Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 2001.
[23] Woodson, W.E., Tillman, B., & Tillman, P. Human
Factors Design Handbook. 2nd Ed. McGraw Hill, New
York, 1992