General chemistry

Chemical bonds and Energy

2nd grade
2nd lecture
1
 Electron configuration

It is the distribution of electrons of an atom in atomic orbitals.

 Three rules:
◦ Electrons fill orbitals starting with lowest (n) and moving
upwards;
◦ No two electrons can fill one orbital with the same spin (Pauli);

◦ For degenerate orbitals, electrons fill each orbital singly before

any orbital gets a second electron (Hund’s rule).

2
Electron configuration:

Aufbau Principle
1s2
2s2 2p6
3s2 3p6 3d10
4s2 4p6 4d10 4f14
5s2 5p6 5d10 5f14
6s2 6p6 6d10
7s2 7p6

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p6 7s2 5f14 6d10 7p6

3
• Atomic orbitals fill with electrons according to their energy levels:

4
The electron configuration of an atom is a shorthand method of writing
the location of electrons by sublevel.

The sublevel is written followed by a superscript with the number of

electrons in the sublevel.

If the 2p sublevel contains 2 electrons, it is written as (2p2)

5
6
 Distribution of electrons of iron in atomic orbitals. Iron has
26 electrons:

 Arrange the energy sublevels according to increasing

energy:

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d …

Fill each sublevel with electrons until you have used all the
electrons in the atom:

Fe: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d 6

7
 Electron Dot Formulas

An electron dot formula of an elements shows the symbol of the

element surrounded by its valence electrons.

 We use one dot for each valence electron.

 Consider phosphorous, P, which has 5 valence electrons. Here is the

method for writing the electron dot formula.

8
 Molecules
A molecule is an aggregate (or sum) of at least two atoms
in a definite arrangement held together by chemical forces
(also called chemical bonds). A molecule may contain same
elements, or two or more elements joined in a fixed ratio.

The hydrogen molecule, symbolized as H2, is called a

diatomic molecule because it contains only two atoms (similar
atoms).

9
 Other elements that normally exist as diatomic molecules
are nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2), as well as the Group 7A

elements; fluorine (F2), chlorine (Cl2), bromine (Br2), and

iodine (I2).

Of course, a diatomic molecule can contain atoms of

different elements. Examples are hydrogen chloride (HCl),
potassium chloride (KCl) and carbon monoxide (CO).

10
 Molecules can contain more than two atoms. They can be
atoms of the same element, as in ozone (O3), which is made up
of three atoms of oxygen, or they can be combinations of two
or more different elements.

Molecules containing more than two atoms (different

atoms) are called polyatomic molecules. Ozone (O3), water

(H2O) and ammonia (NH3) are polyatomic molecules.

11
 Compounds:
Compounds are the result of the formation of chemical
bonds between two or more different elements.

 All compounds are molecules but not all molecules are

compounds.

Ions:
An ion is an atom or a molecule that has a net positive or
negative charge.

12
 The number of positively charged protons in the nucleus of
an atom remains the same during ordinary chemical changes
(called chemical reactions), but negatively charged electrons
may be lost or gained.

The loss of one or more electrons from a neutral atom

results in a cation, an ion with a net positive charge.
For example, a sodium atom (Na) can readily lose an
electron to become a sodium cation, which is represented by
Na+
13
 On the other hand, an anion is an ion whose net charge is negative
due to an increase in the number of electrons.

A chlorine atom (Cl), for instance, can gain an electron to become

the chloride ion Cl-

14
 Chemical bond
A chemical bond is an attraction between atoms; as a result
of this attraction chemical compounds are produced.

Since opposite charges attract each other, the negatively

charged electrons that are orbiting the nucleus and the
positively charged protons in the nucleus attract each other.
This attraction constitutes the chemical bond

15
 The strength of chemical bonds changes;
There are "strong bonds" such as covalent or ionic
bonds and "weak bonds" such as hydrogen bonding.

 Types of Chemical bonds:

1. Ionic bond.
2. Covalent bond.
3. Metallic bond.
4. Hydrogen bonding.

16
 Ionic Bond
This chemical bond involves a transfer of an electron, so
one atom gains an electron while one atom loses an electron.
One of the resulting ions carries a negative charge (anion),
and the other ion carries a positive charge (cation). Because
opposite charges attract, the atoms bond together to form an
ionic compound.
Examples; NaCl, CaCl2, K2O,…..etc.

17
It’s between metal and nonmetal
18
19
Example:
Determine the ionic charges and write the formula for the ionic
compound formed when lithium and nitrogen react with eachother.
Solution:

20
Example:
Determine the ionic charges and write the formula of the compound
that would form when calcium and oxygen react.
Solution:

21
 Covalent bond

The most common bond in organic molecules, a covalent

bond forms by sharing electrons between two atoms. The pair
of shared electrons forms a new orbit that remains around the
nuclei of both atoms, producing a molecule.

Examples; O2, CO2, C2H6, H2O,…..etc.

22
It’s between nonmetal and nonmetal
23
 Non- polar covalent bond
When electrons are shared equally.

Oxygen Molecule (O2)

24
 Polar covalent bond
When electrons are shared unequally.

H2O
25
 double bond occurs when two pairs of electrons are
shared;
 in a triple bond, three pairs of electrons are shared. Atoms
of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur are most likely to
form multiple bonds.

26
 Metallic bonding
Metallic bonding is a type of chemical bonding that arises
from the electrostatic attractive force between electrons (in
the form of an electron cloud of delocalized electrons) and
positively charged metal ions. It may be described as the
sharing of free electrons among a lattice of positively charged
ions.

27
 Hydrogen bonding

A weak bond between two molecules resulting from an

attraction between a proton (hydrogen) in one molecule and an
electronegative atom (such as; oxygen or nitrogen) in the other
molecule.

28
 Energy
 Energy: is defined as the ability to do work.
Energy can be classified as potential energy or kinetic
energy.

1. Kinetic energy: is the energy of motion. Any object that

is moving has kinetic energy (is energy possessed by an
object in motion). The earth revolving around the sun, you
walking down the street, and molecules moving in space
all have kinetic energy.
29
 K.E. = 1/2 m v2
where;
• m = is mass of the object
• V = velocity of the object
If the mass has units of kilograms and the velocity of
meters per second, the kinetic energy has units of kilograms-
meters squared per second squared. Kinetic energy is
usually measured in units of Joules (J); one Joule is equal to 1
kg m2 / s2.

30
2. Potential energy: is energy an object has because of its
position relative to some other object.

When you stand at the top of a stairwell you have more

potential energy than when you are at the bottom, because the
earth can pull you down through the force of gravity, doing
work in the process. When you are holding two magnets apart
they have more potential energy than when they are close
together. If you let them go, they will move toward each other,
doing work in the process.
31
 P.E. = mgh
Where;
• m: is the mass in kilograms.
• g: is the acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m / s2 at the
surface of the earth).
• h: is the height in meters.
*Notice that gravitational potential energy has the same
units as kinetic energy, kg m2 / s2. In fact, all energy has the
same units and is measured using the unit Joule (J)
32
 Water stored in a reservoir has potential energy. When
the water goes over the dam and falls to the stream below, its
potential energy becomes kinetic energy.

Foods and fuels have potential energy in their molecules.

When you digest food or burn gasoline in your car, potential
energy is converted to kinetic energy to do work.

33
 Units of Energy

The SI unit of energy and work is the joule (J)

You may be more familiar with the unit calorie (cal), from
the Latin calori, meaning “heat”.

1 cal = 4.184 J (exact)

34
Example:
1. When 2.2 g of diesel burns in an diesel car engine, 84,000 J
are released. What is this quantity of energy in calories?

Solution:

35
Homeworks:
1. Compare between covalent and ionic bond?
2. Compare between compound and molecule?
3. The burning of 0.5 g of coal produces 6.2 kcal. How many
joules are produced?

36
References:
1. An introduction to general, organic and biological chemistry
by Timberlake, 11th edition.

2. General chemistry, the essential concepts by Raymond

Chang, 5th edition.

37