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Sampling and Sampling
Distributions

Sampling and Sampling Distributions 1

 Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

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 Understand the importance of sampling
 Differentiate between random and non-random sampling
 Understand the concept of sampling and non-sampling errors
 Understand the concept of sampling distribution and the
application of central limit theorem
 Understand sampling distribution of sample proportion

Sampling and Sampling Distributions 2

 Sampling

A researcher generally takes a small portion of the population for

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study, which is referred to as sample. The process of selecting a
sample from the population is called sampling.

Sampling and Sampling Distributions 3

 Why Is Sampling Essential?
 Sampling saves time.


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Sampling saves money.
 When the research process is destructive in nature, sampling
minimizes the destruction.
 Sampling broadens the scope of the study in light of the scarcity
of resources.
 It has been noticed that sampling provides more accurate
results, as compared to census because in sampling, non-
sampling errors can be controlled more easily.
 Census is the investigation of all individual elements that makes
up the census.
 In most cases complete census is not possible and, hence,
sampling is the only option left.

Sampling and Sampling Distributions 4

Figure 5.1: Steps in the sampling design process

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Sampling and Sampling Distributions 5
 The Sampling Design Process
Step 1: Target population must be defined


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Target population is the collection of the objects which possess the
information required by the researcher and about which an
inference is to be made.
Step 2: Sampling frame must be determined
 A researcher takes a sample from a population list, directory, map,
city directory, or any other source used to represent the
population. This list possesses the information about the subjects
and is called the sampling frame.
 Sampling is carried out from the sampling frame and not from the
target population.

Sampling and Sampling Distributions 6

The Sampling Design Process (Contd.)
Step 3: Appropriate sampling technique must be selected


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In sampling with replacement, an element is selected from the
frame, required information is obtained, and then the element is
placed back in the frame. This way, there is a possibility of the
element being selected again in the sample.
 As compared to this, in sampling without replacement, an element
is selected from the frame and not replaced in the frame. This way,
the possibility of further inclusion of the element in the sample is
eliminated.
Step 4: Sample size must be determined
 Sample size refers to the number of elements to be included in the
study.
Step 5: Sampling process must be executed

Sampling and Sampling Distributions 7

Random Versus Non-random Sampling
 In random sampling, each unit of the population has the same
probability (chance) of being selected as part of the sample.

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 In non-random sampling, members of the sample are not
selected by chance. Some other factors like familiarity of the
researcher with the subject, convenience, etc. are the basis of
selection

Sampling and Sampling Distributions 8

Figure 5.2: Random and non-random sampling methods

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Sampling and Sampling Distributions 9
 Random Sampling Methods
 Simple Random Sampling
 In simple random sampling, each member of the population has an

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equal chance of being included in the sample.
 Stratified Random Sampling
 In stratified random sampling, elements in the population are
divided into homogeneous groups called strata.
 Then, researchers use the simple random sampling method to select
a sample from each of the strata. Each group is called stratum.
 In stratified random sampling, stratum should be relatively
homogenous and the strata should contrast with each other.

Sampling and Sampling Distributions 10

 Random Sampling Methods (Contd.)
 In cases where the percentage of
sample taken from each stratum is

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proportionate to the actual
percentage of the stratum within
the whole population, stratified
sampling is termed as
proportionate stratified sampling.
 In cases where the sample taken
from each stratum is
disproportionate to the actual
percentage of the stratum within
the whole population,
disproportionate stratified random Figure 5.5: Stratified random sampling
sampling occurs. based on educational levels

Sampling and Sampling Distributions 11

Random Sampling Methods (Contd.)
 Cluster (or Area) Sampling
 In cluster sampling, we divide the population into non-overlapping areas or

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clusters.
 In stratified sampling, strata happen to be homogenous but in cluster
sampling, clusters are internally heterogeneous.
 A cluster contains a wide range of elements and is a good representative of
the population.

Figure 5.6: Diagram for cluster sampling

Sampling and Sampling Distributions 12
Systematic (or Quasi-random) Sampling
 In systematic sampling, sample elements are selected from the
population at uniform intervals in terms of time, order, or space.

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 A researcher wants to take a sample of size 30 from a population
of size 900 and he has decided to use systematic sampling for
this purpose.

 For obtaining the sample, the first member can be selected

randomly and after that every 30th member of the population is
included in the sample. Suppose the first element 3 is selected
randomly and after this, every 30th element, that is, 33rd, 63rd,
… element up to a sample size of 30 are included in the sample.

Sampling and Sampling Distributions 13

 Multi-Stage Sampling
 As the name indicates, multistage sampling involves the selection
of units in more than one stage.

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Figure 5.7: Multi-stage (four stages) sampling

Sampling and Sampling Distributions 14

 Non-Random Sampling
Sampling techniques where selection of the sampling units is not
based on a random selection process are called nonrandom sampling

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techniques.
Quota Sampling
 In quota sampling, certain subclasses, such as age, gender, income group,
and education level are used as strata. Stratified random sampling is
based on the concept of randomly selecting units from the stratum.
 However, in case of quota sampling, a researcher uses non-random
sampling methods to gather data from one stratum until the required
quota fixed by the researcher is fulfilled.
Convenience Sampling
 In convenience sampling, sample elements are selected based on the
convenience of a researcher.

Sampling and Sampling Distributions 15

 Non-Random Sampling (Contd.)
 Judgement Sampling
 In judgement sampling, selection of the sampling units is based on

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the judgement of a researcher.
 Snowball Sampling
 In snowball sampling, survey respondents are selected on the basis
of referrals from other survey respondents. A snowball collects ice
particles when it rolls on ice.

Sampling and Sampling Distributions 16

Sampling and Non-Sampling Errors

Sampling Error (Random Sampling Error)

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Sampling error occurs when the sample is not a true representative
of the population. In complete enumeration, sampling errors are
not present.
Sampling errors can occur due to some specific reasons:
 Faulty selection of the sample.
 Sometimes due to the difficulty in selection a particular sampling
unit, researchers try to substitute that sampling unit with
another sampling unit which is easy to be surveyed.
 Sometimes researchers demarcate sampling units wrongly and
hence, provide scope for committing sampling errors.

Sampling and Sampling Distributions 17

Sampling and Non-sampling Errors (Contd.)

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Non-Sampling Errors (Systematic Error)
All errors other than sampling can be included in the category of
non-sampling errors.

The following are some common non-sampling errors:

 Faulty designing and planning of survey
 Response errors
 Non-response bias
 Errors in coverage
 Compiling error and publication error

Sampling and Sampling Distributions 18

 Sampling Distribution
 Let us take a small finite population of size N = 6. Elements of the
population are as below:

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25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50
 The shape of the distribution of this population is determined by
using MS Excel histogram.
 We take a sample of size 2 from this population with replacement.

Ch 5 Solved Examples\Excel\Sampling distribution prob.xls

Ch 5 Solved Examples\Excel\Sampling distribution (normal).xls

Sampling and Sampling Distributions 19

 Central Limit Theorem
 Introduced by De Moivre during the early 18th century.
 A population has a mean μ and standard deviation σ. If a sample

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of size n is drawn from the population for sufficiently large
sample size (n ≥ 30); the sample means are approximately
normally distributed regardless of the shape of the population
distribution. If the population is normally distributed, the sample
means are normally distributed, for any size of the sample.
 In case where sample means are normally distributed, z formula
applied to sample mean will be

The revised version of the z formula can be presented as below:

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 Example 5.1
The distribution of the annual earnings of the employees of a cement
factory is negatively skewed. This distribution has a mean of Rs 25,000 and

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standard deviation of Rs 3000. If a researcher draws a random sample of size
50, what is the probability that their average earnings will be more than Rs
26,000?

Sampling and Sampling Distributions 21

 Example 5.1 (Contd.)

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Figure 5.10: Probability that the average Figure 5.11: Corresponding z scores for
earnings of employees is more than Rs 26,000 probability of average earnings more
than Rs 26,000

Sampling and Sampling Distributions 22

 Use of Excel and SPSS

 Ch 5 Solved Examples\Excel\Ex 5.1.xls

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 Ch 5 Solved Examples\Minitab\Ex 5.1.MPJ

Sampling and Sampling Distributions 23

Case of Sampling from a Finite Population

Example 5.1 is based on the assumption that the population is

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extremely large or infinite. In case of a finite population, a statistical
adjustment called finite correction factor can be incorporated into
the z formula for sample mean.

After applying this finite correction factor, the z formula becomes:

Sampling and Sampling Distributions 24

Sample Distribution of Sample Proportion

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Figure 5.12 : Using sample proportion to make an inference about
the population proportion

Sampling and Sampling Distributions 25

Sample Distribution of Sample Proportion

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Example 5.2

In a population of razor blades, 15% are defective. What is the

probability of randomly selecting 90 razor blades and finding 10 or
less defective?

Sampling and Sampling Distributions 26

 Example 5.2 (Solution)

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Figure 5.13: The probability of randomly selecting 90 razor blades
and finding 10 or less defective

Sampling and Sampling Distributions 27

Example 5.2 (Solution)

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Sampling and Sampling Distributions 28