FLUIDS

STATES OF MATTER
• MATTER IS NORMALLY CLASSIFIED AS BEING IN ONE OF THREE STATES: SOLID, LIQUID,
OR GAS.

• EVERYDAY EXPERIENCE TELLS US THAT A SOLID HAS A DEFINITE VOLUME AND SHAPE.
• A LIQUID HAS A DEFINITE VOLUME BUT NO DEFINITE SHAPE.
• A GAS DIFFERS FROM SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS IN THAT IT HAS NEITHER DEFINITE VOLUME
NOR DEFINITE SHAPE.
DENSITY AND PRESSURE
EQUAL MASSES OF ALUMINUM AND GOLD HAVE AN IMPORTANT PHYSICAL DIFFERENCE: THE
ALUMINUM TAKES UP OVER SEVEN TIMES AS MUCH SPACE AS THE GOLD. ALTHOUGH THE REA-
SONS FOR THE DIFFERENCE LIE AT THE ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR LEVELS, A SIMPLE MEASURE
OF THIS DIFFERENCE IS THE CONCEPT OF DENSITY.

The density r of an object having uniform composition is its mass M divided by

its volume V :

SI unit: kilogram per meter cubed (kg/m3)

DENSITIES OF SOME COMMON SUBSTANCES
COMPARISONS OF DENSITIES BETWEEN SOLID , LIQUID,
AND GAS

• THEDENSITIES OF MOST LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS VARY SLIGHTLY WITH CHANGES IN

TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE; THE DENSITIES OF GASES VARY GREATLY WITH SUCH
CHANGES.

• THEDENSITIES OF MOST LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS VARY SLIGHTLY WITH CHANGES IN

TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE; THE DENSITIES OF GASES VARY GREATLY WITH SUCH
CHANGES.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY

THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF A SUBSTANCE IS THE RATIO OF ITS DENSITY TO THE DENSITY
OF WATER AT 4°C, WHICH IS 1.0X10^3 KG/M3.

• 
PRESSURE
IF F IS THE MAGNITUDE OF A FORCE EXERTED PERPENDICULAR TO A GIVEN SURFACE OF
AREA A, THEN THE AVERAGE PRESSURE P IS THE FORCE DIVIDED BY THE AREA:

SI unit: pascal (Pa = N/m2)

• The force exerted by a fluid on an
object is always perpendicular to the
surfaces of the object

• Force is a vector and pressure is a

scalar. There is no direction
associated with pressure, but the
direction of the force associated with
the pressure is perpendicular to the
surface of interest.

• Pressure can change from point to

point, which is why the pressure in the
Equation is called an average.

• Atmospheric pressure at sea level is

14.7 lb/in.2, which in SI units is 1.01
3 105 Pa.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Snowshoes prevent the
person from sinking into
the soft snow because the
force on the snow is spread
over a larger area,
reducing the pressure on
the snow’s surface.

BED OF NAILS:
If you try to support your entire weight on a single nail, the
pressure on your body is your weight divided by the very small
area of the end of the nail. The resulting pres- sure is large
enough to penetrate the skin. If you distribute your weight over
several hundred nails, however, as demon- strated by the
professor, the pressure is considerably reduced because the area
that supports your weight is the total area of all nails in
contact with your body.
EXAMPLE 1
(A) CALCULATE THE WEIGHT OF A CYLINDRICAL COLUMN OF WATER WITH HEIGHT H 5 40.0
M AND RADIUS R 5 1.00 M. (SEE FIG. 9.7.) (B) CALCULATE THE FORCE EXERTED BY
AIR ON A DISK OF RADIUS 1.00 M AT THE WATER’S SURFACE. (C) WHAT PRESSURE AT A
DEPTH OF 40.0 M SUPPORTS THE WATER COLUMN?
QUESTION 1

A GIANT OIL STORAGE FACILITY CONTAINS OIL TO A DEPTH OF 40.0 M. HOW DOES THE
PRESSURE AT THE BOTTOM OF THE TANK COMPARE TO THE PRESSURE AT A DEPTH OF 40.0 M
IN WATER? EXPLAIN.
EXAMPLE 2
A LARGE RECTANGULAR TUB IS FILLED TO A DEPTH OF 2.60 M WITH OLIVE OIL, WHICH HAS
DENSITY 915 KG/M3. IF THE TUB HAS LENGTH 5.00 M AND WIDTH 3.00 M, CALCULATE (A)
THE WEIGHT OF THE OLIVE OIL, (B) THE FORCE OF AIR PRESSURE ON THE SURFACE OF THE
OIL, AND (C) THE PRESSURE EXERTED UPWARD BY THE BOTTOM OF THE TUB.
VARIATION OF PRESSURE WITH DEPTH
When a fluid is at rest in a container, all portions of
the fluid must be in static Equilibrium—at rest with
respect to the observer. Furthermore, all points at
the same depth must be at the same pressure.

Three external forces act on this volume of

fluid:
• the force of gravity, Mg;
• the upward force P2A exerted by the liquid
below it;
• and a downward force P1A exerted by the fluid
above it.
Because the given volume of fluid is in
equilibrium, these forces must add to zero
DERIVATION

Notice that (y1 - y2) is positive, because

y2 < y1. The force P2A is greater than the
force P1A by exactly the weight of water
between the two points.
EQUATION OF HYDROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM

 Thepressure P at a depth h below the surface of a liq- uid open to

the atmosphere is greater than atmospheric pressure by the amount
gh.
QUESTION 2
THE PRESSURE AT THE BOTTOM OF A GLASS FILLED WITH WATER (1 000 KG/M3) IS P. THE WATER IS
POURED OUT AND THE GLASS IS FILLED WITH ETHYL ALCOHOL (806 KG/M3). THE PRESSURE AT THE
BOTTOM OF THE GLASS IS NOW

•(a)
  SMALLER THAN P

(b)EQUAL TO P
(c)LARGER THAN P
(d)INDETERMINATE.
 This photograph illustrates the
fact that the pressure in a liquid
is the same at all points lying at
the same elevation. Note that the
shape of the vessel does not affect
the pressure.
EXAMPLE 3
IN A HUGE OIL TANKER, SALT WATER HAS FLOODED AN OIL TANK TO A DEPTH OF H2=5.00
M. ON TOP OF THE WATER IS A LAYER OF OIL H1=8.00 M DEEP, AS IN THE CROSS-
SECTIONAL VIEW OF THE TANK IN FIGURE 9.10. THE OIL HAS A DENSITY OF 0.700
G/CM3. FIND THE PRESSURE AT THE BOTTOM OF THE TANK. (TAKE 1 025 KG/M3 AS THE
DENSITY OF SALT WATER.)
QUESTION 3

WHY DOES AIR PRESSURE DECREASE WITH INCREASING ALTITUDE?

EXAMPLE 4
CALCULATE THE PRESSURE ON THE TOP LID OF A CHEST BURIED UNDER 4.00 M OF MUD
WITH DENSITY EQUAL TO 1.75X103 KG/M3 AT THE BOTTOM OF A 10.0-M-DEEP LAKE.
PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE
A CHANGE IN PRESSURE APPLIED TO AN ENCLOSED FLUID IS TRANSMITTED UNDIMINISHED TO
EVERY POINT OF THE FLUID AND TO THE WALLS OF THE CONTAINER.

  𝑃 1= 𝑃 2

  𝐹1𝐹2
=
𝐴1 𝐴2
EXAMPLE 5
IN A CAR LIFT USED IN A SERVICE STATION, COMPRESSED AIR EXERTS A FORCE ON A
SMALL PISTON OF CIRCULAR CROSS SECTION HAVING A RADIUS OF R1=5.00 CM. THIS
PRESSURE IS TRANSMITTED BY AN INCOMPRESSIBLE LIQUID TO A SECOND PISTON OF RADIUS
R2=15.0 CM. (A) WHAT FORCE MUST THE COMPRESSED AIR EXERT ON THE SMALL PISTON IN
ORDER TO LIFT A CAR WEIGHING 13 300 N? NEGLECT THE WEIGHTS OF THE PISTONS. (B)
WHAT AIR PRESSURE WILL PRODUCE A FORCE OF THAT MAGNITUDE? (C) SHOW THAT THE WORK
DONE BY THE INPUT AND OUTPUT PISTONS IS THE SAME.
QUESTION 4

TRUE OR FALSE: IF THE RADIUS OF THE OUTPUT PISTON IS DOUBLED, THE OUTPUT FORCE
INCREASES BY A FACTOR OF 4.
EXAMPLE 6
A HYDRAULIC LIFT HAS PISTONS WITH DIAMETERS 8.00 CM AND 36.0 CM, RESPECTIVELY.
IF A FORCE OF 825 N IS EXERTED AT THE INPUT PISTON, WHAT MAXIMUM MASS CAN BE
LIFTED BY THE OUTPUT PISTON?
PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS
 𝑃= 𝑃0 + 𝜌 𝑔h If P in the system is greater
than atmospheric pressure, h is
positive. If P is less than
 𝑃=𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 atmospheric pressure (a partial
vacuum), h is negative,
 𝑃 − 𝑃0 = 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 meaning that the right-hand
column in Figure 9.13a is lower
Gauge Pressure – amount by than the left-hand column.
which the container pressure
differ from atmospheric
pressure
MANOMETER Absolute Pressure – actual
value of pressure inside the
container
BAROMETER
 Evangelista Torricelli (1608–1647)
A long tube closed at one end is filled with
mercury and then inverted into a dish of
mercury.

One atmosphere of pressure is defined to

be the pressure equivalent of a column of
mercury that is exactly 0.76 m in height at
0°C with g = 9.80665 m/s2. At this
temperature, mercury has a density of
13.595 x 103 kg/m3; therefore,

BAROMETER
NOTE THAT THE BAROMETER MEASURES THE PRESSURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE,
WHEREAS THE MANOMETER MEASURES PRESSURE IN AN ENCLOSED FLUID.
BUOYANT FORCES AND ARCHIMEDES’
PRINCIPLE
ANY OBJECT COMPLETELY OR PARTIALLY SUBMERGED IN A FLUID IS BUOYED UP
BY A FORCE WITH MAGNITUDE EQUAL TO THE WEIGHT OF THE FLUID
DISPLACED BY THE OBJECT.
ARCHIMEDES
GREEK MATHEMATICIAN, PHYSICIST, AND ENGINEER (287–212 BC)
ARCHIMEDES WAS PROBABLY THE GREATEST SCIENTIST OF ANTIQUITY. ACCORDING TO
LEGEND, KING HIERON ASKED HIM TO DETERMINE WHETHER THE KING’S CROWN WAS
PURE GOLD OR A GOLD ALLOY. ARCHIMEDES ALLEGEDLY ARRIVED AT A SOLUTION WHEN
BATHING, NOTICING
A PARTIAL LOSS OF WEIGHT ON LOWER- ING HIMSELF INTO THE WATER. HE WAS SO
EXCITED THAT HE REPORTEDLY RAN NAKED THROUGH THE STREETS OF SYRACUSE
SHOUTING “EUREKA!”, WHICH IS GREEK FOR “I HAVE FOUND IT!”
 We often say that an object placed in a

BUOYANT FORCE fluid is buoyed up by the fluid, so we

call this upward force the buoyant force.

The buoyant force is not a mysterious

new force that arises in fluids. In fact,
the physical cause of the buoyant force
is the pressure difference between the
upper and lower sides of the object.

This buoyancy force remains the same

regardless of the material occupying
the volume in question because it’s
due to the surrounding fluid.
CASE I : TOTALLY SUBMERGED OBJECT
Therefore, if the density of
the object is less than the
density of the fluid, the net
force exerted on the object is
positive (upward) and the
object accelerates upward, as
in Figures 9.16 and 9.17a. If
the density of the object is
greater than the density of
the fluid, as in Figure 9.17b,
the net force is negative and
the object accelerates
downward.
CASE II: FLOATING OBJECT
REMEMBER:

A FLOATING OBJECT DISPLACES FLUID BASED ON ITS MASS.

A SINKING OBJECT DISPLACES FLUID BASED ON ITS VOLUME.
EXAMPLE 11

A BEACH BALL WITH A VOLUME OF 5000CM^3 IS PUSHED UNDERWATER. WHAT

IS THE MAGNITUDE OF THE BUOYANT FORCE PUSHING UPWARDS? (DENSITY OF
WATER = 1G/CM^3)
QUESTION 6
THE DENSITY OF LEAD IS GREATER THAN IRON, AND BOTH METALS ARE
DENSER THAN WATER. IS THE BUOYANT FORCE ON A SOLID LEAD OBJECT (A)
GREATER THAN, (B) EQUAL TO, OR (C) LESS THAN THE BUOYANT FORCE
ACTING ON A SOLID IRON OBJECT OF THE SAME DIMENSIONS?
EXAMPLE 10
A BARGAIN HUNTER PURCHASES A “GOLD” CROWN AT A FLEA MARKET. AFTER SHE
GETS HOME, SHE HANGS IT FROM A SCALE AND FINDS ITS WEIGHT TO BE 7.84 N
(FIG. 9.22A). SHE THEN WEIGHS THE CROWN WHILE IT IS IMMERSED IN WATER, AS IN
FIGURE 9.22B, AND NOW THE SCALE READS 6.86 N. IS THE CROWN MADE OF PURE
GOLD?
QUESTION 7

TRUE OR FALSE: THE MAGNITUDE OF THE BUOYANT FORCE ON A COMPLETELY

SUBMERGED OBJECT DEPENDS ON THE OBJECT’S DENSITY.
EXAMPLE 11
THE WEIGHT OF A METAL BRACELET IS MEASURED TO BE 0.100 00 N IN AIR AND
0.092 00 N WHEN IMMERSED IN WATER. FIND ITS DENSITY
EXAMPLE 12
A RAFT IS CONSTRUCTED OF WOOD HAVING A DENSITY OF 6.00 X 102 KG/M3. ITS SURFACE
AREA IS 5.70 M2, AND ITS VOLUME IS 0.60 M3. WHEN THE RAFT IS PLACED IN FRESH WATER
AS IN FIGURE 9.23, TO WHAT DEPTH H IS THE BOTTOM OF THE RAFT SUBMERGED?
QUESTION 8
IF THE RAFT IS PLACED IN SALT WATER, WHICH HAS A DENSITY GREATER THAN
FRESH WATER, WOULD THE VALUE OF H
(a)DECREASE
(b)INCREASE
(c)NOT CHANGE
EXAMPLE 13
CALCULATE HOW MUCH OF AN ICEBERG IS BENEATH THE SURFACE OF THE
OCEAN, GIVEN THAT THE DENSITY OF ICE IS 917 KG/M3 AND SALT WATER HAS
DENSITY 1 025 KG/M
 FLUIDS IN MOTION
STREAMLINE, OR LAMINAR, IF EVERY PARTICLE THAT In contrast, the flow of a
PASSES A PARTICULAR POINT MOVES ALONG EXACTLY fluid becomes irregular, or
THE SAME SMOOTH PATH FOLLOWED BY PREVIOUS TURBULENT, above a
PARTICLES PASSING THAT POINT.
certain velocity or under
any conditions that can
cause abrupt changes in
velocity.
Irregular motions of the
fluid, called eddy currents
are characteristics of
turbulent flow
Viscosity is used for the
degree of internal friction in
An illustration of streamline flow around an automobile in a test wind the fluid.
tunnel.
IDEAL FLUID
1. The fluid is nonviscous, which means there is no internal friction force between adjacent
layers.

2. The fluid is incompressible, which means its density is constant.

3. The fluid motion is steady, meaning that the velocity, density, and pressure at each
point in the fluid don’t change with time.

4. The fluid moves without turbulence. This implies that each element of the
fluid has zero angular velocity about its center, so there can’t be any eddy currents present
in the moving fluid. A small wheel placed in the fluid would translate but not rotate.
REMEMBER:
• Steady Flow: the velocity of the fluid particles at any point is constant as
the time passes.
• Unsteady Flow: the velocity at a point in the fluid changes as the time
passes
• Turbulent Flow: extreme kind of unsteady flow; the velocity changes
erratically from moment to moment.
• Fluid flow can be compressible or incompressible
• Compressible: Density is not constant when pressure changes (ie: most gasses)
• Incompressible: Density remains constant as pressure changes (ie: most liquids)
• Fluid flow can be viscous or nonviscous
• Viscosity: fluids’ resistance to deformation; fluids’ “thickness”
EQUATIONS OF CONTINUITY
Flow Rate (Q)
-Volume per unit
time
For incompressible fluid:
Q = Av
Unit: m^3/s
Equation of Continuity
EXAMPLE 14
Each second, 5 525 m3 of water flows over the 670-m-wide cliff of the
Horseshoe Falls portion of Niagara Falls. The water is approximately 2 m deep
as it reaches the cliff. Estimate its speed at that instant.
QUESTION 9

WHAT HAPPENS TO THE SPEED OF BLOOD IN AN ARTERY WHEN PLAQUE

STARTS TO BUILD UP ON THE ARTERY’S SIDES?
EXAMPLE 16
A water hose 2.50 cm in diameter is used by a gardener to fill a 30.0-liter
bucket. (One liter = 1 000 cm3.) The gardener notices that it takes 1.00 min
to fill the bucket. A nozzle with an opening of cross-sectional area 0.500 cm2
is then attached to the hose. The nozzle is held so that water is projected
horizontally from a point 1.00 m above the ground. Over what horizontal
distance can the water be projected?
EXAMPLE 15
THE GARFIELD THOMAS WATER TUNNEL AT PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY
HAS A CIRCULAR CROSS SECTION THAT CONSTRICTS FROM A DIAMETER OF 3.6
M TO THE TEST SECTION WHICH HAS A DIAMETER OF 1.2 M. IF THE SPEED OF
FLOW IS 3.0 M/S IN THE LARGER-DIAMETER PIPE, DETERMINE THE SPEED OF
FLOW IN THE TEST SECTION.
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
In 1738 the Swiss physicist Daniel Bernoulli (1700–1782) derived an expression that
relates the pressure of a fluid to its speed and elevation. Bernoulli’s equation is not a
freestanding law of physics; rather, it’s a consequence of energy conservation as applied
to an ideal fluid.
This is Bernoulli’s equation, often expressed as
VENTURI TUBE
Because the water is not backing up in the pipe, its
speed v2 in the constricted region must be greater
than its speed v in the region of greater diameter.
From Equation 9.13, we see that P2 must be less
than P1 because v2 . v1. This result is
often expressed by the statement that swiftly
moving fluids exert less pressure than do slowly
moving fluids. This important fact enables us to
understand a wide range of everyday phenomena.
 EXAMPLE 16
• A NEARSIGHTED SHERIFF FIRES AT A CATTLE RUSTLER
WITH HIS TRUSTY SIX-SHOOTER. FORTUNATELY FOR THE
RUSTLER, THE BULLET MISSES HIM AND PENETRATES THE
TOWN WATER TANK, CAUSING A LEAK. (A) IF THE TOP OF
THE TANK IS OPEN TO THE ATMOSPHERE, DETERMINE THE
SPEED AT WHICH THE WATER LEAVES THE HOLE WHEN THE
WATER LEVEL IS 0.75 M ABOVE THE HOLE. (B) WHERE
DOES THE STREAM HIT THE GROUND IF THE HOLE IS 3.00
M ABOVE THE GROUND? 3.13 m/s
2.45 m
EXAMPLE 17
• A LARGE PIPE WITH A CROSS-SECTIONAL
AREA OF 1.00 M2 DESCENDS 5.00 M AND
NARROWS TO 0.500 M2, WHERE IT
TERMINATES IN A VALVE AT POINT 1. IF THE
PRESSURE AT POINT 2 IS ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE, AND THE VALVE IS OPENED WIDE
AND WATER ALLOWED TO FLOW FREELY, FIND
THE SPEED OF THE WATER LEAVING THE PIPE.

11.4 m/s
RESOURCES

COLLEGE PHYSICS VOLUME 1 , SERWAY,VUILLE

PHYSICS, CUTNELL & JOHNSON