Coordination and

Control
 Coodination and Control:
Definition:
Control is the power of restrain and regulation by which something can be started,slowed down or stopped. Co-ordination : the working together of various agents of the body of an organisms in a proper manner to produce appropriate reaction to a stimulus is called  coordination.
Need of Coordination
There are various organs in an organism. These organs must be carefully controlled and coordinated for the survival of an organisms. In the body of an organism various fluids are secreted from the glands of the endocrine system. These hormones are responsible for the overall growth and development of an organism. All others daily decision that includes voluntary
and involuntary action are controlled by central nervous system(CNS).
Plant Hormones:
Certain substances affect the growth ,they are called plant hormones or phytohormone .They are also termed as growth regulators.
Definition:
“Growth hormones are the substances which are produced in cells,they are transferred to other cells where they are required and influence the process of development”
Important Characteristics of Hormones:
1)They are synthesized in particular cells (in embryonic tissues)
2)They are transferred to other cells and influence the process of development.
3)They are required in extremely small quantity.
Biological Clock:
There is particular clock system in plants an animals which controls physiological and metabolic functions according to the time. It is known as biological clock.
Example:
The opening and closing of leaf lets and movement of plant organs due to light and temperature are controlled by biological clock.
In Oat plant growth is by biological clock.
In bryophyllum plant CO2 metabolism takes place by biological clock.
Circadian Rhythms:
When living organism perform their functions according to a particular time,it is called biological rhythms or biorhmsythms.When this biothyms is according to 24 hours i.e one day,it is known as circadian rhythm.The circadian rhythm in plant is either in presence or absence of climatic factors.
Example:
Bean plant sleep movement is in the presence of light and also in the absence of light.

In plants when all functions and movements are controlled by internal biological clock system ,then these are called endogenous rhythms
PLANT HORMONES
The common hormones are as follows:
i)Auxins
ii)Gibberellins
iii)Cytokinins
iv)Abscisic Acid
v)Ethene
AUXIN:
Auxins are compounds which induce elongation in shoot cells and other growing parts.Auxins were first collected from oat plant.Fritwent(1926)was first to use term auxin.He reported his activity in oat pant tht it caused growth of oat coleptile towards light .Went (1928) was another scientist who
performed oat-curvature test .He indicated the presence of auxins in coleoptile of oat .Went’s auxin was IAA indol-3-acetic acid (C 10 H9O2N) .It is the principal naturally occuring auxin of all higher plants and fungi.
The chemical which contain auxin are indol butyric acid(IBA) and Nephthalene acetic acid (NAA).
Role of Auxins:
1)Cell division and elongation :
Auxin takes part in the cell division and cell elongation at the apices of root and stem,so their length is increased.italso helps in the cell division of cambium to produce vascular tissues and to increas the width of plant body.
Root formation;It helps in root formation.it also produce adventitous roots from the base of stem.
Abscission of leaves and fruits; when leaves and fruits are mature auxin production is stopped and at their lower region a layer of cells in fromed,called abscission layer,due to a jerk the leaves and fruits fall on the ground.
Growth of fruits;It is involved in the growth of fruits.
Parthenocarpy;It produce fruits and seeds without fertilization.
Apical dominance; auxin helps in the rapid growth in the apical regions of stem and roots it is called apical dominance
weedicide;auxin is used to kill weeds.a chemical 2-4-dichloro phenoxy acetic acid is used for this purpose
Gibberellins: Gibberellins is an important growth hormone of plants.it was isolated from a fungus gibberella fujikuroi by two japance scientists.yabuta and sumiki hayashi in 1938.This fungus caused a disease in rice,called
foolish seedling of rice (commonly called bakanae disease).soon after it was isolated from the higher plants, since then 60 different types of gibberellins have been isolated 51 of these are found in higher plants.they are named as
A1,A2,A3 to A51 etc
Role of gibberellins
1)Gibberellins prevent the genetic and physiological dwarfism in plants
2)They are found to be effective in breaking the dormancy
3)They induce flowering in long day plants
4)In some cases these hormones help in fruit formation by parthenocarpy
5)They promote cell division and cell elongation of stems and leaves
6)They stimulate germination of pollen grain and formation of pollen-tube in may plants
 Cytokinins:
cytokinins represent a group of substance which helps in cell division.Miller 1954 isolated it from herring sperm DNA and named it as kinetin. Cytokinin have been extracted from coconut milk tomato juice,
fruits of pear, plum, maize and other plants. The cytokinin of maize grains is called zeatin
Role of cytokinins:
1)It takes part in cell division in the presence of
auxins
2)It is involved in the elongation of cell
3)It initiates the growth and root formation
4)It break dormancy
5)It induces flowering in short day plants
6)It delays senescence i.e. old age and
detachment of leaves from the plants.
Abscisic acid:
Abscisic acid: (ABA) does not take part in the growth
of plant body like other hormones, but during
unfavorable conditions it reduces ot stops the growth.it
is also called stress hormone.in dry season and cold
weather it stops the formation of buds and seeds closes
stomata modifies leaves into scales for bud protection
and increases the process of leaf fall
Ethene:
Ethene is a gass but it works as a hormone.it is called repening hormone.
FUNCTION
Its function are is a follows.
1)It takes part in the ripening of fruits.
2)It changes permeability of cell due which certain enzymes enter through cell membrane which reduce chloroplast and red or yellow colours become prominent it indicates ripening of flowers and fruits.
3)It takes part in the abscission of leaves.
4)It induces flowering in some plants such as pineapple.
Nervous Coordination
It involves specialized cells or neurons linked together directly or
via the central nervous system to form network that connects the
cell or organs which receive stimuli (receptor)and those which
carry out actions or responses (Effectors)
Elements of nervous System:
1) Receptors
2)Neurons
3)Effectors
1)Receptors
Detect changes in the external and internal environment of the animal.
The receptor may be a cell, or neuron ending or a receptor organ.
Classification of Receptors
1)Chemoreceptors
smell
taste
blood carbon dioxide
oxygen
glucose
amino acids
fatty acids
Examples
Receptors in in the hypothalamus
2)Mechanoreceptors:
They detect stimuli of touch,pressure,hearing and equilibruim
Examples
free nerve endings
expended tip endings
stray endings
3)photoreceptors
Electroromagnetic receptros
They respond to the stimuli of light
Example
Rods and cones of eyes
4)Thermo receptors
These are free nerve endings
These show response to cold and warmth
5)Nociceptors
Undifferentiated endings
They produce the sensation of pain
Modalities of sensation
Each principal type of sensation that we can experience like pain,
touch,sight,sound are called modalities of sensation

vision hearing smell taste touch

How nerve fibers transmit different modalities of
sensation?
1) Each nerve tract terminates at a specific point in the CNS; and
the type of sensation is determined by the point in the nervous
system to which the fiber leads.
1)Each receptor organ is specialized to receive a particular type
of stimulus and this is carried to the particular area of the brain
Working of sensory receptors with special reference to skin
Three different type of sensory endings are involved in touch stimulus reception
1) Hair end organs
. Situated at the base of hairs
. Recive touch stimulus
2) Meissner’s corpuscles
lies in papillae which extend into the ridges of the fingertips
The corpuscle consist of spiral and much twisted endings, each of which ends in a knob
These are touch receptors
3)pacinian corpuscles
Situated deep in the body
These are also encapsulated neuron endings.
Receive deep pressure stimulus.
Location in the limbs and from a basis for vibration sense.
 Relative abundance of various type of receptors
pain receptors are nearly 27 times more abundant than cold receptors.
the cold receptors are nearly 10 time more abundant than heat or temperature receptors
Nervous tissue
1) Neurons
A special kind of animal cell, which can generate and conduct electric current
Structure:
nervous are differentiated into following three regions
a) some are cell body
b) dendrites
c) axon
a) Soma
Also called cell body
It contains cytoplasm, cell organelles and nucleus
In addition to typical cell organelles, Nissl substance are also present that consist of ribosomes
It is concerned with biosynthesis of meterial necessary for the growth and maintenance of the neuron
b) Dendrites
These are thread like processes
Receive stimuli and convey it on the soma
c) Axon
It originates from a pyramid like area of soma called axon-hillock
Long cytoplasmic process which usaully arises oppisite to dendrites
It end in knob like structures, the axon terminals
The axon of some neurons are covered by a myelin sheath
It is conducting of neuron
Types of neuron
Functionally neurons can be differentiated into three types
a)Sensory neuron
It carry sensory information from the receprot to the other neurons or directley to cns
b)Inter neuron
They are found central nervous system
c) Motor neuron
It take commands of the of the contral centre to the effector
Myelinated neuron
Myelinated sheath is present
Unmyelinated neuron
Myelin sheath is absent
Neuroglia (glail cells)
Present in central nervous system
Functions of Neuroglia:
These smaller cells separate neurons from on another
form myelin sheath
Involved in trophic and phagocytic functions
Nerve impulse:
Nerve impulse is a wave of electrochemical changes, which travel along the leanth of the neuron involving chemical reactions and movement of ions across the
cell membrane
The normal speed of nerve impulse in human is 100 meter per second
Maximum speed records is120 meter per second

Electrical potential:
It is measure of the capacity of the neuron to do electrical work
It represents of type of stored energy which is manifested during separation of charges across a barrier
Charges(positive and negative ion)
Barrier = plasma membrane
Membrane potential:
The electrical potential that exist across a cell membrane is
known as membrane potential.
Resting membrane potential;(RMP)
A the rest neuron is electrically more positive outside than inside
the cell membrane
This net difference in charge between the inner and the outer
surface of a non-conducting neuron is called the resting
membrane potential.
Factors involved in RMP or factors that maintains RMP
1)Sodium and potassium
2)Negative organic ions
3)Leakage of k ions neurons
1) Sodium and potassium ions;
Concentration of sodium ions is 10 times higher outside than inside the membrane surface of neuron
Concentration of potassium ions 20 times higher inside than outside the membrane surface of neuron
v\
Sodium potassium pump;
These pump transports na out and k into the membrane of neuron
2 k+ ions are actively transported inward and 3na ions are pumped out
Inside becomes more negative than the outside of membrane of neuron
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GTHWig1vOnY
2) Negative organic ions:
Protein and organic acids are large negative
organic ions.
Are much more inside the membrane than
outside
This makes inside of neuron the membrane more
negative
Leakage of k+ ions from neurons:
The cell membrane is virtually impermeable to all ions except k+
The membrane is slightly permeable to k+ some of it leaks out of
the cell
The lost of this positive ions from the neuron by diffusion
accounts for more negative charges inside than outside the cell
membrane of neuron.
Neural Transmission
Initiation of Nerve Impulse
A nerve impulse is initiated by an appropriate stimulus (called threshold
stimulus)
It disappears for a instant and is replace by a new potential called action are
active membrane potential which is the form of impulse
During this state, the inner membrane surface become more positive than the
out side
This change of so brief that only a portion of the neuron is in active membrane
potential state
1.Na+and K+ions movement:
The soduim ions moves inwards upsetting the the potential
momentarily, making the inside more positive than outside
Increased permeability is due to the opning of specific pores
in the membrane termed sodium gates.
When these gates open sodium rush into the neuron by
diffusion
Some k+ ions moves out.
2. Charges are reversed:
The inner side of cell membrane has excess of positive ions/
charge at its internal surface and the outer surface become more negative.
3.passage of nerve impulse:
During active membrane potential the neuron conducts the impulse in in the form of nerve impulse.
4. Membrane potential
Active membrane potential of +0.005 volts (+50mv)
These charges occur along the length of neuron till the impulse reaches synapse
Soon after passage of the impulse, the resting membrane of ions especially k+ moving
out
Synapse
a nerve impulse is passed from one neuron to the other
though the synapse.
Saltatory impulse (saltare means to jump)
In myelinated neurons the impulse jumps from node to
node(node of Ranvier).this is called saltatory impulse
Co-ordination and
control
human nervous
system
Central Nervous system
It consist of brain and spinal cord
Both are protected in three ways
1)Cranium protects the brain and vertebral column protects the spinal cord
2)triple layers of mening protects the brain and spinal cord
3)cerebrospinal fluid(CFS)
CFS have similar composition to blood plasma
It bathes the neurons of brain and spinal cord
spinal cord have central canal filled by CFS
Brain have ventricles filled by CFS
Human Brain
Parts of the Nervous System
Central Nervous System (CNS): The brain, along with the spinal cord, constitutes the Central Nervous System. It is responsible for thoughts, interpretation and origin of control of body movements.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): It includes the nerves and ganglia that are present outside the brain and spinal cord. These radiate through the entire body, from tip to toe. The primary function of the PNS is to connect the Central Nervous System with the other parts of the body such as organs, organ systems, limbs and skin.
Brain Location And Structure
The brain is enclosed within the skull, which provides frontal, lateral and dorsal protection. The skull consists of 22 bones, 14 of which forms the facial bones and the remaining 8 forms the cranial bones. Anatomically, the brain is contained within the cranium and is surrounded by the cerebrospinal fluid.
The Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) is a fluid that circulates within the skull and spinal cord, filling up hollow spaces on the surface of the brain. Every day, around 500mL of cerebrospinal fluid, is produced.
The primary function of the CSF is to act as a buffer for the brain, cushioning mechanical shocks and dampening minor jolts. The CSF also provides basic immunological protection to the brain.
Furthermore, CSF provides buoyancy for the brain. i.e., the brain is suspended in a layer of CSF, wherein, the weight of the brain is nearly negated. If the brain was not suspended in CSF, it would be impeded by its own weight, consequently cutting off the blood supply in the lower half of the brain. This would lead to the death of neurons in the affected area.
 Parts of the Human Brain
The human brain is composed of three major parts, namely:
Forebrain: It is the anterior part of the brain. It consists of –
Cerebrum,
Hypothalamus
Thalamus
Midbrain: It is a small and central part of the brainstem. It consists of –
Tectum
Tegmentum
Hindbrain: It is the main region of the brain and is composed of –
Cerebellum
Medulla
Pons
Cerebrum
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain which consists of the cerebral cortex and other subcortical structures. It is composed of two cerebral hemispheres that are joined together by heavy dense bands of fibre called the corpus callosum. It is further divided into four sections or lobes:
Frontal lobe: It is associated with parts of speech, planning, reasoning, problem-solving and movement.
Parietal lobe: Helps in movement, the perception of stimuli and orientation.
Occipital lobe: Related to visual processing.
Temporal lobe: Related to perception and recognition of memory, auditory stimuli, and speech.
Generally, the brain consists of two types of tissue named Grey matter and White matter because of their appearance to the naked eye. Grey matter mainly consists of various types of cells, which make up the bulk of the brain. White matter is primarily composed of axons which connect various grey matter areas of the brain with each other.
The exterior portion of the cerebrum is called the cortex or the cerebral mantle. The cortex is extremely convoluted, and as a result, has a large surface area.  The cerebrum also includes:
Sensory areas: To receive the messages.
Association areas: To associate the information with the previous and other sensory information.
Motor areas: Responsible for the action of the voluntary muscles.
The cerebrum is also responsible for thinking, intelligence,  consciousness and memory.
Thalamus
The thalamus is a small structure located right above the brain stem responsible for relaying sensory information from the  sense organs. It is also responsible for relaying motor information for movement and coordination. Thalamus is found in the  limbic system within the cerebrum. This limbic system is mainly responsible for the
formation of new memories and storing past experiences.
Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is a small and important part of the brain, located exactly below the thalamus. It is considered the most important region of the brain as it is involved in :
1)Controlling the mood and emotions.
2)Receiving the impulses, sense of taste and smell.
3)Coordinating the messages from the autonomous nervous system.
4)Synthesizing of body’s essential hormones.
5)Controlling body temperature, peristalsis, the rate of heartbeat, and blood pressure.
6)Forming an axis with the pituitary which is the main link between the nervous and the endocrine systems.
 Tectum
The tectum is a small portion of the brain, specifically the dorsal part of the midbrain. It serves as a relay centre for the sensory information from the ears to the cerebrum. It also controls the reflex movements of the head, eye and neck muscles. It provides a passage for the
different neurons moving in and out of the cerebrum.
 Tegmentum
Tegmentum is a region within the brainstem. It is a complex structure with various components. It forms the platform for the midbrain and connects with the  thalamus, cerebral cortex, and the spinal cord. It is mainly involved in the
movements,  sleep, arousal, attention,  and various basic reflexes.
Cerebellum
The cerebellum is the second largest part of the brain which is located in the posterior portion of the medulla and pons.
FUNCTIONS
The main functions of the cerebellum include:
1.It senses equilibrium.
2.Transfer of information.
3.Fine control of the voluntary body movements.
4.The cerebellum is responsible for coordinating eye movements.
5.It predicts the future position of the body during a particular movement.
6.The cerebellum is also essential for making fine adjustments to motor actions.
7.Both anterior and posterior lobes are concerned with skeletal movements.
8.Coordinating and maintaining body balance and posture during walking, running, riding, swimming, etc.
 Medulla Oblongata
The medulla oblongata is a small structure present in the lowest region of the brain.  It essentially controls the body’s autonomic functions such as heartbeat, breathing, digestion, etc. It plays a primary role in connecting the spinal cord, pons and the cerebral cortex. Also, it
helps us in maintaining our posture and controlling our reflexes.
 Pons
The pons is the major structure of the brain stem present between the midbrain and medulla oblongata. It serves as a relay signals between the lower cerebellum, spinal cord, the midbrain, cerebrum and other higher parts of the brain. The main functions of the pons include:
Transferring information between the cerebellum and motor cortex.
Controlling the magnitude and frequency of the respiration.
It is also involved in controlling sleep cycles.
In addition, the pons is involved in sensations such as the sense of taste, hearing, and balance.
Spinal cord
Thick,whitish in colour
Structure
1)Grey matter
It is inner butterfly or h shaped protien
Contains a central canal
Contains cell bodies of non myelinated neuron
2) White matter
The outer protein
Contains myelinated nerve fiber
3)Central canal:
Filled with CFS
Dorsal root:
Carries axon of sensory neurons

Ventral root:
Carry axons motor neuron

Peripheral spinal nerves:

dorsal +ventral nerves
Peripheral Nervous system (PNS):
Sensory and Motor neurons may form
ganglia: concentrations of cell bodies of neurons
Nerves: bundles of axons or dendrites bounded by connective tissue

1)PNS is formed by :
12 pairs
Arises from brain

2) Cerebral\ cranial nerves:

31pairs
Arises from spinal cords

Motor neurons from somatic and autonomic nervous system

Motor neurons from somatic autonomic nervous system
a) somatic nervous system:
It controls volunatry movments which are under the
conscious control of body
Involving skeletal muscles
b) Autonomic nervous system:
Controls involuntary responses by infuencing
Organs
Glands
Smooth muscles
Autonomic nervous system is of two types
1)Sympathetic nervous system
2)Parasympathetic nervous system
Sympathetic nervous system:
Most ganglia fibres arises from the middle portion of the spinal
cord(thoracic and lumber region)

This system is important during emergency situations

It is associated with fight are flight this system

1)Accelerates the heart beat

2)Dilates the pupil
3)Inhibits the digestion of food
4)Increases breathing rate
Parasympathetic nervous system:
It includes
Few cranial nerve
Vagus nerve
Spinal nerve arising from
Sacral vertebrae

It promotes all the internal responses which are

associated with relaxed state
Contraction of the pupil
Promotes digestion of food
Retards heart beat
Reflex Arc:
Effects of drugs on-coordination
Drug:
Chemical substance that provokes specific physiological
response in the body

Nicotine:
It is found in tobacco
It suppresses the action of acetylcholine
It stimulates a variety of sensory receptors
It is stimulant of nerve impulse

Effects:
Increase the heart beat rate
Increase blood pressure
Cause water retention relation by kidney
 Some nervous disorders
1) Parkinson’s disease
2) Alzheimer’s disease
3) Epilepsy
Parkinson’s diseas
causes
Causes either by degeneration or damage to nerve tissue within the basal
ganglia of the brain
Symptoms
The disease begins as the slight termuore of one hands, arm are legs which is
wrose at the time when limb is in rest
later, the disease affect both the side of the body and cause stiffness, weakness
and the trembling of muscles
speech may become slow and hesitant
Treatment
leopoda is the most effective drug that is converted into dopamine by our body
 Alzheimer’s Disease
Causes
Progressive degenration of neurons of brain (especially cerebral cortex and hippocampus).Abnormal protein deposits build up in the brain,causing brain cells to die.
Symptoms
Dementia(loss of memory)
Three Stage of Alzheimer
1st Stage
1)The patient notices his forget fullness.
2nd Stage
2)Severe loss of memory particularly for recent events.
Disorientation to time or space,losing his way even on familiar streets.
Anxiety increases with sudden changes in mood.
3rd Stage
3)The patient become severely disoriented and may suffer from symptoms of
i)Hallucination(Hearing voices or seeing faces when no one is there)
Paranoid delusions (A fixed,irrational idea not shared by others and not responding to reasoned arguments)
Treatment:
Three cholinesterase inhibitors are commonly prescribed: Donepezil (Aricept) is approved to treat all stages of Alzheimer's. Rivastigmine (Exelon) is approved totreat mild to moderate Alzheimer's.
 Epilepsy
It is a tendency of recurrent seizures or temporary alteration in one or more functions.

Causes
Caused by abnormal electrical activity in the brain.

Symptoms
Seizures
Spontaneous seizures
Due to stimulus: Flash light
Generalized Seizures: Complete unconciousness, stiff body with twitches or jerks.
Partial seizures: Momentary loss of unconciousness without abnormal movement.

Treatment:
Anticonvulsant drugs are used.
Chemical coordination:
Most primitive than nervous system
vertebrates produce various types of signaling chemical such as
Neurotransmitters
pheromones
hormones
Hormone:
Secretory product of endocrine glands
Endocrine system
It consists of some 20 endocrine glands\tissues
Hormones are directly released in the blood stream to be carried it to other parts of body
A minute quantity of hormones may have a profound effect on aan organisms’ activity
•

Chemical nature of hormone.

Hormones are divided chemically into the following types
1) polypeptide hormones:
short chin amino acid
ADH
Oxytocin
2)protein hormone:
occur as long chain of amino acids
Glucogon
Insulin
Prolectin
3) modified amino acid hormones:
Thyroxine
Epinethrine
Norepinephrine
4) steroid hormone:
lipid in nature
Estrogen
Testosterone
Progesterone
Aldosterone
Model of action of hormone
Two main models have been proposed to explain the hormone action
Model#01
It is related to peptide hormone
Model#2
it is related to steroid hormones.
Endocrine glands of mammals
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Thyroid gland
Parathyroird gland
Pancreas
Adrenal gland
Gut
Gonads
 Hypothalamus
It serves as connecting link between nervous and endocrine system.
It is part of the brain .
Its neurosecretory cells produce hormones called

Releasing hormones or factors

Inhibiting hormones or factors
Some of its cells secrete
Antidiuretic hormone(ADH)
Oxytocin
Pituitary gland
It is also called hypophysis cerebri.
It is ovoid structure.
0.5 gm in the adult
Connected to brain through a short stalk(infundibulum)
It has three lobes

1. anterior lobe
2. median lobe
3. posterior lobes
Anterior lobe
Also called Adenohypophsis
It secrete following hormone

1)Smoatotropin(STH)
2)Thyroid stimulating hormone
3)Adenocorticotropic hormone(ACTH)/Corticotropic Hormone
4)Gonadotrophic Hormone.(GH)

a)Follicle stimulating hormone(FSH)

b)Luteinizing Hormone(LH)
c)Interstitial cell stimulating Hormone(ICSH)
d)Prolectin
1)Somatotrophin Hormone(STH)
Somatotrophin releasing h factor
(from hypothalamus) Anterior pituitary Somatotrophin
hormone
Stimulate body weight growth
Function:
It stimulates weight and the rate of growth of the body
It also influence the protein ,carbohydrates and fat metabolism to a great extent.
Disorders
:Hyposecretion (Dwarfism)
Hyper Secretion (Gigantism,Acromegaly)
Hyposecretion :
Dwarfism:
Sexually immature.
At adult age they attain maximum height 3 or 4 feet.
Hypersecretion :
Gignatism:
After adolescence the hormone continues to promote protein synthesis throughout the body.
This hormone is produced in excess during easily life.
Individual become 7 to 8 feet or more height.
Acromegaly:
If hormone is produced after full growth of skeletal muscles result acromegaly
Symptoms:
Enlargement of the bones to hands ,feet,jaws,checks and face.
Nose, lips, eyelids becomes thickened
4)Gonadotrohic Hormones(GH)
a)Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
b.Lutenizing Hormone(LH)
c)Interstitial cell stimulating hormone(ICSH)
d)Prolactin
Oxytocin
Effects uterine contractions during child birth
Milk ejection from mammary glands
contractions of other smooth muscles
It release is controlled by:
1.Decrease in progesterone levels in blood
2.Neural stimuli during parturition and suckling
Thyroid Gland
Structure and location:
It consists of two lobes that lie close together on either side of the trachea and below the lyranx
The two lobes are joined by a thin connective tissue called Isthmus.
Function:
It produces 1.Mono iodo thyroxin
2.Di iodo thyronine
3.Tri iodo thyronine or T3(Thyroxine)
4.tetra iodo thyronine or T4(Thyroxine)
5.Calcitonin
Function of T3 and T4.
1)Acts on basal metabolism
By stimulating the breakdown of glucose
Rselease heat
generation of ATP
2)Acts in combination with somatotrophin
Brings growth
Act directly on brain cells causing them to differentiate
3)Helps in metamorphosis
In amphibians they bring about the process of metamorphosis

Deficient hormone Tadpole larva Large size tadpole

Functions of Calcitonin
Control calcium level
High calcium level stimulates it
Low calcium level suppress its manufacture.
Excess or Deficiency of calcitonin
It leads to disturbance of calcium metabolism with its associated effects on
Nerves
Skeleton
Muscles
Blood
Disorders of thyroid gland
Hypothyroidism
1)Cretinism
Individuals fails to develop normally .
They are smalll
Have coarse scanty hair
Thick yellowish scaly skin
Fails to develop sexually
2)Goiter
Occur due to iodine shortage in diet
Swelling of neck.
Non toxic multinodules can cause swelling
Leads to deposition of excess fat(weight is increased)
3)Myxodema
Puffiness of hand and skin
Swelling around lips and nose
Mental deterioration
Hyperthyroidism:
Production of abnormal body protein which continuously stimulates the thyroid to excessive secretion
Graves Disease
Immune system disorder
Symptoms:
Exopthalamus
Goiter
Muscles weakness
Sweating
Tremor
Increase in the basal metabolic rate.
Cardiac failure
Parathyroids
Found embedded in the posterior part of the lateral of the thyroid
Produce a hormone called parathormone
Low ca+ ions stimulate the parathyroid parathormone increases v High level of Ca ions Suppress the
parathormone

Function :It maintain the metabolism of phosphate and calcium

Disorder:
Hyposecretion:
Under activity causes a drop in blood Ca ions which leads to muscular
tetany
Hypersecretion:
Over activity would leads to
1.Progressive demineralization of the bone similar to rickets.
2.Formation of massive kidney stones.
Pancreas:
Patches of pancreatic cells are know as islets of langerhans
These islets of langerhans are endocrine gland
Islets contains two distinct types of cells.
Alpha cells(Secrete glucagon)
Beta cell(Secrete Insuline)
Insuline:
Deoresses blood glucose level
In a variety of ways which includes
Increasing glycogen synthesis
Increasing cell utilization of glucose
It stimulate conversion of glucose into lipids and protein which in turn reduce glucose
Insulin inhibits the hydrolysis of glycogen in the liver and the muscles.
Disorder:
Hyperglycaemia
Diabetes Mellitus
Failure to produce insuline
Symptoms:
High level of blood sugar
Sugar in the urine(Glycosuria)
Disturbance of the body’s osmotic equilibrium
Toxic metabolites from fat accumulates and are only lost from kidney with valuable metal cations.
Dehydration
Hypoglycemia: If excess insuline is produced the utilization of sugar is too great
Its level falls in the blood which upsets nerve and muscle functioning
Glucagon: It is secreted in response to decrease in blood glucose level whose set point is about 90mg/100 ml
c Cause an increase in blood glucose level
Promotes breakdown of glycogen to glucose in the liver and muscles.
Also increase the rate of break down of fats.
Disorders:Rare as endocrine disorders.
Tumors on beta cells.
Excess glucagon secretion causes high blood glucose level.
Adrenals: A pair is present ,one on top of each kidney
Adrenal gland Adrenal medulla

Adrenaline (Epinephrine)
Non Adrenaline(Nor epinephrine)
Adrenal Cortex

Cortisol
Corticosterone
Aldosterone
Androgenic hormone
Adrenaline and non Adrenaline Hormone
Both are secreted in stress situation
They promotes the release of glucose from liver,Glycogen reinforce the effect of the sympathetic system
1)Adrenaline:
1.Dilate blood vessels in certain parts of the body such as skeletal muscles
2.Increases the hearts output
3.Increases blood glucose
4.Increases breathing rate and metabolic rate.
2)Nor adrenaline
1.Constricts blood vessel, but only in certain area such as the gut.
Disorders:
Rarely found
In excess.
These hormones leads to abnormally high blood pressure
In low Concentration:
In rats with out adrenal medulla, the ability to withstand any stress situation(Cold) is markedly diminished
Hormones of Adrenal Cortex
1)Cortisol Hormones:
Adrenal cortex is active all times but especially at the time of shock, stress and infections(fever)
Cortisol is the glucocorticoid
Functions:
1.It hydrolysis muscles proteins to glucose
2.It reduces the inflammatory responses and pain
Disorders:
Hypersecretion:
Cushing Syndrome:
1.Excessive protein breakdown(leads to muscular and bone weakness)
2.High blood sugar(Diabetes)
3.Obesity.
4.Hypertension.
Hyposecretion:
Due to the destruction of adrenal gland.
Addison’s disease.
Autoimmune process
Symptoms:
Weakness
Weight loss
Low blood sugar
Reduced blood pressure
loss of salts
Cold situation will leads to death
2)Corticosterone:
It is both a glucocorticoid and a mineralocorticoid
It increases blood glucose levels. It regulates mineral ion balance
3)Aldosterone:
Principal mineralocorticoid
It increases the reabsorption of Na+ and Cl- ions by the kidney tubules
Maintain blood volume and blood pressure
4)Androgens:
Corticosteroid hormones
It is secreted in both sexes(male and female)
causes development of secondary male characteristics such as 1.Growth of facial hair
2.Deeping of the voice
3.Increased in muscle bulk
Disorder:Hypersecrtion in females :It develops certain male characters in females.
Gut:
Many parts of the gut function as endocrine tissues
1)Gastrin
Produced by muscles of the pyloric region of the stomach
It stimulates the secretion of gastric juice
It is produced under the influence of protein food in the stomach after it is partially digested
2)Secretin:
Produced from the duodenum when acid food touches its lining
It affects the pancreas to produce and release pancreatic juice
Also affects the bile production in the liver
Gonads
Ovary:
1)Oestrogen
Anterior pituitory FSH Follicles Oestrogen
Functions:
1.Develops secondary sexual characters in female
2.Causes thickening of the uterine wall
3.Rises the sharp rise in L.H output by pituitary
4.Aid in healing and repair of uterine wall after menstruation
5.Makes uterine wall cells glandular then they secretes proteinases secretions which are taken up by the embryo during its early stages of development
Disorders(Deficiency)
1.Failure to mature sexually in young
2.Sterility in the adult
2)progesterone:
Pituitary gland LH Raptured follicles Progestron
Function:
1.Inhibits further F.S.H secretion from pituitary
2.Prevent follicles from ripening
3.causes thicking and vascularization of walls of uterus and other areas of the female body
4 .Maintains it for state of pregnancy
5.Suppress ovulation
6.Major constituent of birth control pill
Testes:
It consist of
1)seminiferous tubules(Where spermatozoa develop)
2)Interstitial cells (produces testosterone and 17 b-hydroxytestosterone)
After the initiation of development ,the sex organs in the fetus produce them.
Their level rises fairly consistently until puberty them become constant.
Functions:
In foetus,it initates the development of sex organs
At puberty it develops male secondary sexual characters
Thymus Gland:
Situated in the upper part of chest,behind the breast bone
It secretes several hormones including THYMOSIN
Functions of Thymosin:
It stimulates the development and differentiation of T lymphocytes after they leaves the thymus.
The T lymphocytes defend the body against virus infectious microorganism
Pineal Gland
It is a tiny ,cone shaped body
Lies in the brain
Function:
It responds to external conditions of light and darkness as sensed through the eyes.
It secrete MELATONIN at night.
The level of melatonin varies from day to night and with the season.
The variation influence the growth and development of gonads.
Animal Behaviour
Behaviour
The way in which an animals or person behaves in response to particular situation or stimulus
Ethology: The scientific study the nature of behaviour and its ecological and evolutionary significance in its natural setting is called ethology.
All behaviour have some genetic basis because they involve nervous and effector systems.
Types of Behaviour
Innate Behaviour
learning Behaviour
Innate Behaviour
These are automatic ,pre programmed, genetically determined, stereotypes activities, which do not involve any learning
Example :
Web spinning of spiders
The communication of honey bee
The smiling of a baby while looking at the face of someone
Orientation
1)Kinases
Non directional
It is a behavior in which an organism changes the speed of random movement which help them to survive in the environment
Example:
Movement of pill bugs to reach the moist area which is required for their life.
2)Taxes
Directional movement

Positive Taxes: The movement towards the stimulus

Negative Taxes: The movement away from the stimulus
Reflexes:
Movement of a body part
These are stereotyped, short-lived, rapid, responses mediated by nervous system
Example:
Knee –jerk
Blinking of eye
With –drawl of hand from a hot object.
 Fixed Action Pattern (FAP)
Highly stereotyped innate behaviour is triggered or released by an external sensory stimulus known as sign stimulus or releaser
Example:
The male three spined stickleback fish attacks other males that enter his territory. The releaser or sign stimulus of the attack is the red belly of the intruder
http:/www.arkive.org/three-spined-stickleback/gasterosteus-aculeatus/image-
A23078.html
B)Learning Behaviour
According to Thrope
“The process which manifests itself by adaptive changes in individual behaviour as a result of experience”
TYPES
1)Imprinting
2)Habituation
3)Classic Conditioning or Conditioned type I
4)Operant conditioning or conditioned type II(trial and error)
5)Latent learning
6)Insight learning (reasoning)
Imprinting:
Shortly after hatching,ducklings and other young birds have tendency to follow moving objects in their surrounding
This term was coined by Konard Lorenz in 1930
Sensitive period :In this limited period animals can imprint
 2)Habituation:
It involves modification of behaviour through a diminution of response to repeated stimuli
Animals stops responding to a repeated stimulus, which is neither beneficial nor harmful.
3)Conditioning or Condition Reflex type I
It involves the pairing or an irrelevant stimulus with a natural primary stimulus that elicits an automatic reponse.
Ivan Pavlov(1902)conditioned the dogs to secrete saliva on ringing of the bell,which is not normal stimulus for secretion of saliva
Operent conditioning or conditioned reflex typell
Trail and error.
Reward or punishment.
Example:
sindh text book p.87
Latent learning
situation without patent award
animal learn something without
even the incentive of any
reward and punishment
6)Insight Learning
Problem solving without trial and error learning
Example:
The experiment was performed on chimpanzees,presented with a bunch of bananas hanging too high to reach and few boxes ,some chimpanzees piled up boxes to make a stand for themselves to reach the bananas