Z11EN: Electrical and Electronics Engineering Fundamentals

SESSION 1 – Ohm’s Law, Series and Parallel Resistors

The Electrical Team

 Session Learning outcome

At the end of this section learners will be able to:

• State basic electrical units of measurement

• Describe the structure of an atom and explain the concept of electrical charge
• Define Voltage, Current and Resistance

• Discuss the characteristics of Voltage, Current and Resistance

• State the resistance of a resistor using the colour code
• Measure the voltage, current and resistance in a circuit.
• State and apply Ohm’s law
• Identify a series, parallel resistor circuit
• Calculate the equivalent resistance
 Electricity and the engineer

Electrical engineering can be summarised into four

categories:
1. The production of electrical energy
2. The transmission of electrical energy
3. The application of electrical energy
4. The control of electrical energy
 An electrical system

The basic electrical system has four constituent

parts:
1. The source
2. The load
3. The transmission system
4. The control apparatus

An electric circuit is an example of an electrical system.

 An electric circuit

An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements.

The circuit shown consists of three basic elements: a battery, a lamp

and connecting wires.
 Some electrical components
• Resistors
• Capacitors
• Inductors
• Transformers
• Operational amplifiers
Electronic Instruments
DC Power Supply

The DC power supply is used for providing current and voltage

used to power electronic circuits
Electronic Instruments
Function generator
The function generator provides electronic signals used for
testing and troubleshooting electronic circuits
Electronic Instruments
Digital multimeter

The Digital multimeter has

a combination of a
voltmeter, an ammeter, and
ohmmeter function for
measuring voltage, current
and resistance.
Electronic Instruments
Oscilloscope

The Oscilloscope is used for observing and measuring AC voltages.

‘’NI ELVIS” (Electronic Virtual Instrument System)
All-in-one electronics Lab
• Breadboard area
• Power Supply
+/- 15V
• Multimeter
Measure V, A, R etc.
• Signal Generator
Creates AC signals
• Oscilloscope
“See” what’s
happening!
• Component tester
Measure C, L, diodes
• Connects to a PC
Display, Record data
Quiz

1. Name four types of common electrical components.

2. What instrument is used for measuring current?
3. Name two instruments used for measuring voltage.
4. What instrument is used for measuring resistance?
5. What is a multimeter?
Electrical and Electronic Symbols
Can you figure out what electric components the following
symbols refer to?
The process of
building a finalised
circuit.
(a) Circuit
diagram

(b) PC board

(c) Actual
circuit
SI derived units
Electrical quantities and units
Quantity Symbol Unit Symbol
Capacitance C farad F
Charge Q coulomb C
Current I ampere A
Energy W joule J
Frequency f hertz Hz
Power P watt W
Voltage V volt V
Resistance R ohm Ω
SI derived units

Magnetic quantities and units

Quantity Symbol Unit Symbol
Flux density B tesla T
Magnetic flux Φ weber Wb
Magnetizing force H Ampere-turns/meter At/m
Magneto motive Fm Ampere-turn At
force

Permeability µ webers/ampere-turns- Wb/Atm

meter

Reluctance R Ampere-turns/weber At/Wb

 Scientific and Engineering notations

• Electrical quantities are typically very large or very small.

• Typical examples of values encountered in electronics are

2,200,000 ohms and 0.0000025 amperes.

• Powers of 10 notation enables us to work with these very

large and small quantities efficiently.

• Two common forms of powers of 10 notation are:

Scientific notation
Engineering notation
 Scientific and Engineering notations

• The use of engineering notation is more common

than scientific notation in electronics.
• The powers of 10 used in engineering notation can
be replaced with a corresponding metric prefix.
• Any number may be expressed in powers of 10
notation:
power or exponent

103 = 10 x 10 x 10
base
307EN V1.0 20
100,000,000 = 108 10 = 101 0.000001= 10-6

10,000,000 = 107 1 = 100 0.0000001=10-7

1,000,000 = 106 0.1= 10-1 0.00000001=10-8

100,000 = 105 0.01=10-2 0.000000001=10-9

10,000 = 104 0.001=10-3 0.0000000001=10-10

1,000 = 103 0.0001=10-4 0.00000000001=10-11

100 = 102 0.00001=10-5 0.000000000001=10-12

 Scientific notations

Expressing a Number in Scientific Notation

– Scientific notation is a form of powers of 10 notation that
expresses a number between 1 and 10 times a power of
10.
– The power of 10 indicates the placement of the decimal
point.

3,900 = 3900.0
decimal point moved
= 3.9 x 103 3 places to the left.

decimal point moved

0.0000056 = 5.6 x 10-6 6 places to the right.
 Engineering notations and Metric prefixes

Engineering notation is similar to scientific notation, except

that the numerical coefficient is between 1 and 1000 and the
exponent is always a multiple of 3.

27,000 = 2.7 x 104 scientific notation

= 27 x 103 engineering notation

.00047 = 4.7 x 10 -4 scientific notation

= 470 x 10-6 engineering notation

 Engineering notations and Metric prefixes

Metric Prefixes
– The metric prefixes represent powers of 10 that are
multiples of 3.
– Once a number is expressed in engineering notation, its
power of 10 can be replaced with its metric prefix.

1,000,000 Ω = 1.0 x 106 Ω

= 1.0 Mega Ω
= 1.0 MΩ
Engineering notations and Metric prefixes

Power of 10 Prefix Abbreviation

1012 tera T
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo k
10-3 milli m
10-6 micro μ
10-9 nano n
10-12 pico p
 Converting between Metric prefixes

• Converting from one metric prefix to another is a change

in the power of 10.
• When the power of 10 is changed, the numerical part of
the expression must also change so the value of the
original number stays the same.

Make the following conversion:

2700 kΩ to MΩ:

2700 x 103 Ω to 2.7 x 106Ω:

2.7 x 106Ω = 2.7 MΩ

 Example

Convert 45 mA to μA

– Recall that prefix milli (m) corresponds to 10-3, and

– Recall that prefix micro (μ) corresponds to 10-6
– Since 10-6 is less that 10-3 by a factor of 1000 (103), then
– The numerical part of the expression must be increased
by the same factor
– Therefore 45 mA = 45,000 μA
 Group Activity:

1. Convert 2.2 MΩ to kΩ
2. Convert 47,000 pF to nF
3. Convert 2500 μA to mA
4. Convert 6.25 mW to μW
5. Convert 0.1 MV to kV
6. Convert 250,000pA to milli amperes (mA)
7. Add 0.05 MW to 75kW and express the result in kW
8. Add 50mV and 25,000µV and express the result in mV.
9. State the symbol and power of the following:
Tera; Pico; Kilo
Addition and Subtraction Involving Powers of 10 Notation

• Before numbers expressed in powers of 10 170 x 103

notation can be added or subtracted, both
terms must be expressed using the same
+ 23 x 104
power of 10.
• When both terms have the same power of 170 x 103
10, just add or subtract the numerical parts
of each term and multiply the sum by the + 230 x 103
power of 10 common to both terms. 400 x 103

• Express the final answer in the desired form 4.00 x 105

of powers of 10 notation.
 Your turn (individual)

Perform the following operations and express your answer in

scientific notation:

(15 x 102) + (6.0 x 104) = (15 x 102) + (600 x 102)

= 615 x 102 = 6.15 x 104

(550 x 10-3) – (250 x 10-4) = (550 x 10-3) - (25 x 10-3)

= 525 x 10-3 = 5.25 x 10-1
 Multiplication Involving Powers of 10 Notation

• When multiplying numbers

(3 x 106) x (150 x 102)
expressed in powers of 10
notation, multiply the numerical 3 x150 = 450
parts and powers of 10 separately.
• When multiplying powers of 10,
106 x 102 = 106+2 = 108
simply add the exponents to
obtain the new power of 10.
450 x 108
• Express the final answer in the
desired form of powers of 10
notation. 4.5 x 10 10
 Division Involving Powers of 10 Notation

• When dividing numbers expressed in

powers of 10 notation, divide the (5.0 x 107) / (2.0 x 104)
numerical parts and powers of 10
separately. 5 / 2 = 2.5
• When dividing powers of 10, subtract
the power of 10 in the denominator
from the power of 10 in the 107
/ 10 4
= 10 7-4
= 10 3

numerator.
• Express the final answer in the
desired form of powers of 10 2.5 x 103
notation.
 Reciprocals with Powers of 10

• Taking the reciprocal of a power of 10 is a special

case of division using powers of 10.
• The 1 in the numerator = 100.
• When taking the reciprocal of a power of 10,
simply change the sign of the exponent or power
of 10.

• Reciprocal of 105 = 1 100

= = 100-5
= 10-5
105 105
 Square Roots of Numbers
Expressed in Powers of 10 Notation

To find the square root of a number expressed in powers

of 10 notation, take the square root of the numerical part
of the expression and divide the power of 10 by 2.
Express the answer in the desired form of powers of 10
notation.

4 x 106 = 4x 106

2 x 103
 Units of measure (“SI” Units)
Quantity Unit
÷÷ 1,000,
1,000, ÷÷ ÷÷ xx 1
1 xx xx
000,
000, 1,000,
1,000, 1,000
1,000 1,000
1,000 1,000,
1,000,
000
000 000
000 000
000
nano micro milli <none> kilo mega
nano micro milli <none> kilo mega
Length Metre, m nm μm mm m km 1000 km
Length
Mass Metre,
Gram, gm nm
ng μm
μg mm
mg m
g km
kg 1000
Tonnekm
Mass
Time Gram,
Second,g s ng
ns μg
μs mg
ms gs kg
ks Tonne
Ms
Frequency
Time Hertz, Hzs
Second, nHz
ns μHz
μs mHz
ms sHz kHz
ks MHz
Ms
Current
Frequency Amps, A
Hertz, Hz nA
nHz μA
μHz mA
mHz A
Hz kA
kHz MA
MHz
Voltage
Current Volts
Amps,VA nV
nA μV
μA mV
mA V
A kV
kA MV
MA
Resistance Ohms Ω nΩ μΩ mΩ Ω kΩ MΩ
Voltage Volts V nV μV mV V kV MV
Power Watts, W nW μW mW W kW MW
Resistance Ohms Ω nΩ μΩ mΩ Ω kΩ MΩ
Energy Joules, J nJ μJ mJ J kJ MJ
Power
Capacitance Watts,
Farad, FW nW
nF μW
uF mW
mF W
F kW
kF MW
MF
Energy
Inductance Joules,
Henry, HJ nJ
nH μJ
uH mJ
mH JH kJ
kH MJ
MH
Capacitance Farad, F nF uF mF F kF MF
Inductance Henry, H nH uH mH H kH MH

Page 35
 Atoms

• All matter is made of atoms

• An Atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains the
characteristics of that element.
• Atoms have a nucleus composed of positively charged particles
called protons and uncharged particles called neutrons with
electrons orbiting around it.
• Electrons have a negative charge (-), protons (+) while neutrons
are neutral
 Free Electrons

• Electrons in the outer band become free of their orbit when an

external force is applied such as movement through a magnetic field,
friction or chemical action
• These are referred to as free electrons
• A free electron leaves a void which can be filled by an electron forced
out of orbit from another atom.
• As free electrons move from one atom to the next, electron flow is
produced.
 Short Video

What is an amp?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8gvJzrjwjds
 Current

• Electricity is the flow of electrons in a conductor from one atom to

the next atom in the same general direction
• The flow of electron is referred to as current and is designated by
the symbol I André Ampère (1775-1836)
• Current is measured in Amperes.
• Current that constantly flow in the same
direction is called direct current (DC)
• Current that periodically changes direction
is called alternating current (AC)
Analogy of Electric Current

Page 40
 Electrical Current - Flow

• In electrical circuits, the current flowing in a circuit is a measure of

the volume of electrical charge (electrons) on the move, per second
• It is measured in AMPS, Symbol “I” (=1 coulomb per second)
– Solar powered calculator ~ few uA
– Mobile phone charger ~ 500 mA
– Car headlight bulb ~ 5 A
– Car starter motor ~ 100A

Electrical current is measured as passing a point in a circuit

Electrical current can only flow in a completed circuit (there is a path
all the way around).

Page 41
 Voltage

 • Some work or energy transfer is required to move some electron from

one point in a conductor to another.
• This work performed by an external electromotive force (e.m.f),
typically represented by a battery.
• e.m.f is also known as voltage or potential difference.
• The Voltage between two points a and b in an electric circuit is the
energy or work needed to move a unit charge from a to b;

a
+
I
𝑉  𝑎𝑏

- + -
b
 Voltage

Example:

• If 50J of energy are available for every 10C of charge, what is the
voltage?

• How much energy does a 12V battery in your car use to move 2.5C
through the electrical circuit.
Commonly used Units
Unit Short form Decimal value
1 Kilovolts 1kV 1000V
1 millivolts 1mV 0.001V
1 microvolts 1µV 0.000001A
Analogy- Tank of Water

• Deeper you go, the higher the

pressure = VOLTAGE
• Amount of water flowing =
CURRENT
• Smaller holes offer larger
RESISTANCE, resulting in
smaller currents at any given
voltage

Page 44
 Measuring Voltage & Current

• Voltmeter: measures voltage without drawing current

• Ammeter: measures current without dropping voltage

© 2013 National Technology and Science Press

 Open Circuit & Short Circuit

• Open circuit: no path for current flow (R = )

• Short circuit: no voltage drop (R = 0)

© 2013 National Technology and Science Press

 Group Exercise:
1. In what time would a current of 1 A transfer a charge of 30
C?
2. A current of 3 A flows for 5 minutes. What charge is
transferred?
3. How long must a current of 0.1 A flow so as to transfer a
charge of 30 C
4. Rewrite the following as indicated:
(a) 1 000 pF = ……… nF
(b) 0.02 F = ………. pF
(c) 5 000 kHz = ……… MHz
(d) 47 k = …….. M
(e) 0.32 mA = ……. A

© 2013 National Technology and Science Press

 Resistors

• Resistors resist, or limit electrical current in a circuit

Resistance: ability to resist flow of

electric current

  iR r = resistivity

R
i
To measure the resistance of a resistor
1. Digital Multimeter
To measure the resistance of a resistor

2. Colour Code

Colour code Mnemonic

• Better Be Right Or Your Great Big Venture Goes West
• Bad Beer Rots Our Young Guts, But Vodka Goes Well
• Black Bugs Race Over Yellow Grass, Beside Violent Grey Water
Exercise
Resistor colour code exercise
Measuring Resistance (on Parallel and power source is off)

Power source not Power source connected

connected
Ohm’s Law

 • George Simon Ohm, 1789-1854

• Ohm, a German physicist, in 1826 experimentally determined

the basic law relating voltage and current for a resistor.

Ohm’s law states that current is directly proportional to voltage and

inversely proportional to resistance

  𝒗 =𝒊𝑹
Where measured in Volts (V)
measured in Amps (A)
measured in Ohms (Ω)
Conductance

Conductance is the ability of an element to

conduct electric current; it is measured in mhos(Ʊ)
or siemens (S).
 

 
Example:

•   Calculate the voltage across a 100 Ω resistor when the

1)
current is 2 A.

2) Calculate the resistance and the conductance in a circuit

when the voltage is 12 V and the current is 0.5 A.
 𝐺= 1 = 1 = 41.67 𝑚𝑆
𝑅 24
•   Calculate the resistance of a 2 km length of aluminium overhead
3)
power cable if the cross-sectional area of the cable is 100 mm2.
Take the resistivity of aluminium to be 0.03×10−6 Ωm.
Exercise:
1) The current flowing through a heating element is 5 A when a
voltage of 35 V is applied across it. Find the resistance and of
the element.
2) Determine the voltage which must be applied to a 5 k resistor
such that a current of 6 mA may flow.
3) A 20 V source of e.m.f. is connected across a circuit having a
resistance of 400 . Calculate the current flowing and the
conductance.
4) An electric iron draws 2 A at 120 V. Find its resistance.
5) How much current is drawn by a toaster with resistance 12 Ω at
230 V?
•   In the circuit shown below, calculate the current and the
6)
conductance G.

+v-
7) Calculate the cross-sectional area, in mm2, of a piece of copper
wire, 40 m in length and having a resistance of 0.25 Ω. Take the
resistivity of copper as 0.02×10−6 Ωm.
Exercise:

• Graphs of current against voltage for two resistors P and Q are

shown below. Determine the value of each resistor.
Example:

•A  12 V battery is connected across a load

having a resistance of 40 Ω. Determine the
current flowing in the load.
 Exercise:

1) Calculate the voltage in the circuit shown below.

2) An amount of energy equal to 100J is used in 5s. What is

the power in watts?
3) If 100W of power occurs for 30s, how much
energy in joule is used?

4) A stove element draws 15 A when

connected to a 240 V line. What resistance
does it require? How about conductance?
Fuses

If there is a fault in a piece of equipment then excessive

Current may flow. This will cause overheating and possibly
a fire; fuses protect against this happening. Current
from the supply to the equipment flows through the fuse.

The fuse is a piece of wire which can carry a stated current;

if the current rises above this value it will melt. If the fuse melts
(blows) then there is an open circuit and no current can then flow
— thus protecting the equipment by isolating it from the power
supply.
Fuses

The fuse must be able to carry slightly more than the

normal operating current of the equipment to allow for
tolerances and small current surges.

Exercise:

If 5A, 10A and 13A fuses are available, state which is most
appropriate for the following appliances which are both
connected to a 240V supply
(a) Electric toaster having a power rating of 1kW.
(b) Electric fire having a power rating of 3kW.
Revision questions
1) Determine the voltage which must be applied to a 2 kΩ resistor in
order that a current of 10 mA may flow. Ans.[20 V]
2) A coil has a current of 50 mA flowing through it when the
applied voltage is 12 V. What is the resistance of the coil? Ans.
[240 Ω]
3) A current of 5 A flows in the winding of an electric motor, the
resistance of the winding being 100 Ω. Determine (a) the voltage
across the winding Ans. [500 V, 2.5 kW]
5) Electrical equipment in an office takes a current of 13A from a
240V supply. Estimate the resistance and conductance of the
equipment.
 Series circuits

All circuits have three common

attributes. These are: R1

1. A source of voltage. VS + R2
2. A load.
3. A complete path. R3

A series circuit is one that has

only one current path.
 Series Circuit Rule For
Current:
Because there is only one path, the current
everywhere is the same.

For example, the reading on the first ammeter is

2.0 mA, What do the other meters read?

+ 2.0 mA _ R 1 + 2.0 mA_

V S R 2

_ _
2.0 mA+ 2.0 mA+
 Series Circuit

Resistor below is arranged in series connection:

I R1 R2 RN

 V1   V2   VN 

VS



VS
 Req

The equivalent resistance for any number of resistors in series

connection is the sum of each individual resistor.
Req = R1 + R2 + ……….+ RN
 Current In Series Circuit
Current in series circuit is the same as in
each circuit element.

I  I1  I 2  I N

Voltage In Series Circuit

Voltage (VT) in series circuit is the total voltage
of each element circuit.

VT  V1  V2  ..  VN
 Series Circuits
The total resistance of resistors in series is
the sum of the individual resistors.

For example, the resistors in a series circuit are 680 W, 1.5 kW ,

and 2.2 kW. What is the total resistance?
R 1

680 
V S R2
12 V 1 .5 k 
4.38 kW
R 3

2 .2 k 
 By applying Ohm’s
Law
V
V2  R2 I I
R1  R2

Voltage at resistor R2

 V   R2 
V2  R2    V  
 R1  R2   R1  R2 
 Voltage Sources In
Series
Voltage sources in series add algebraically.
For example, the total voltage of the sources +
9V
shown is 27V
+
9V

Exercise: What is the total voltage if one +

battery is reversed? 9V 9V
2) Two resistors are connected in series across a 24 V supply and a
current of 3 A flows in the circuit. If one of the resistors has a
resistance of 2 Ω determine (a) the value of the other resistor, and
(b) the voltage across the 2 Ω resistor. Ans. [6 ohms, 6 V]
3) Complete the parameters listed in the Table.

R 1

680 
V S R2
12 V 1 .5 k 
R 3

2 .2 k 

I 1= R1= 0.68 kW V1= P1=

I 2= R2= 1.50 kW V2= P2=
I 3= R3= 2.20 kW V3= P3=
I T= RT= 4.38 kW VS= 12 V PT=
 Parallel resistors
Resistors that are connected to the same two points are said to be in
parallel. A
R1 R2 R3 R4

B
A parallel circuit is identified by the fact that it has more than one
current path (branch) connected to a common voltage source.

+ R1 R2 R3 R4
VS
  I1 I2 IN
IS
V R1 R2 RN


IS
V Req

The equivalent resistance for any number of resistors in parallel connection is

obtained by taking the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocal of each single
resistor in the circuit.
 Equivalent resistance

1 1 1 1
   ............ 
Req R1 R2 RN

1
Req 
1  1  ........  1
R1 R2 RN
For the circuit which have two resistors
in parallel connection:

Req  R1 R2
1
Req 
1  1
R1 R2
R1 R2

R1  R2
 Current In Parallel Circuit
 Current in series circuit is equal to the total
current for each element circuit
I  I1  I 2  ..  I N

Voltage In Parallel Circuit

 Voltage (VT) in series circuit is the same as for each
element circuit

VT  V1  V2  VN
Resistors in Parallel
 Combination circuits

Most practical circuits have combinations of series and

parallel components. You can frequently simplify analysis by
combining series and parallel components.

An important analysis method is to form an equivalent circuit.

An equivalent circuit is one that has

characteristics that are electrically the same as another circuit

but is generally simpler.
Combination circuits
For example:

R 1
1 .0 k  is equivalent R 1

to 2 .0 k 
R 2
1 .0 k 

There are no electrical measurements that

can distinguish the boxes.
Combination circuits

Another example:
is equivalent to

R 1 R 2
R 1 ,2
1 .0 k  1 .0 k  500 

There are no electrical measurements that

can distinguish the boxes.
 is equivalent to

R 1
1 .0 k  R 3 R 1 ,2 R 3

R 2
4 .7 k  3 .7 k  4 .7 k 
2 .7 k 

is equivalent to

There are no electrical

R 1 ,2 ,3
measurements that can
2 .0 7 k  distinguish between the
three boxes.
Example

 Find the equivalent resistance () for the circuit shown below:

𝑅  𝑒𝑞 𝑅  𝑒𝑞 𝑅  𝑒𝑞
Exercise

 Calculate the equivalent resistance () for the circuits shown below:

𝑅  𝑒𝑞
𝑅  𝑒𝑞
 Revision: simultaneous equations

 Solveby substitution and equation the

coefficients:

 
Solve by the method you like!: