THEORY of METAL MACHINING

There are different material removal

processes, we have talked about 3 different
types:
1. Turning
2. Drilling
3. Milling
Material removing processes are important
because most of the manufacturing processes
require at least one of these operations.
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Independent variables in cutting operations:
1) Tool shape:
Drilling and Milling operations are performed with multi-
cutting edge tool, and Turning operation is performed with
single cutting edge tool.

These cutting edges serves to separate a chip from work

material.

Single cutting edge tool has 2 angles

- Rake angle (α ): Angle between the plane perpendicular to
work-part and the tool.
- Relief angle: Angle between the tool and newly generated
surface. Relief angle protects the newly generated surface from
abrasion.

Multi-cutting edgeIEtools have more complex geometries.

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2) Cutting conditions:
Machining operations can be divided into two parts
i) Roughing cuts: Used to remove large amounts of material
from the work material as rapidly as possible in order to
produce a shape close to the desired form, but leaving enough
material for the finishing operation.
ii) Finishing cuts(cleaning): Used to complete the part to the
desired dimensions and good surface finish. Cutting depth is
low, speed is higher but feed is low with respect to the cutting
conditions used in roughing.
3) Cutting fluids:
Used to cool and lubricate the work part and the cutting toolto
get a clean and accurate surface. Ex: Oil, water etc.
4) Machine tool:
Selecting suitable machine for the desired shape and material.
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5) Work holding:
Using suitable work holding device for the geometry and the
cutting conditions is important.
6) Work piece material:
Selecting the material that can be used for the desired shape
and the geometry is another variable.
7) Tool material:
Selecting available tool material is another independent
variable. (Will be talked later)

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Dependent variables in cutting operations:
1) Surface finish: If it is final cut we need to use finishing operation
cutting conditions if not roughing cutting conditions must be
chosen.
2) Tool wear or failure:There are different types of tool failures:
• Fracture failure: result of excessive force at the tool point.
• Temperature failure:result of high temperature in the cutting
zone, which softens the tool material and results in failure.
• Gradual wear: Loss of tool shape, reduction in cutting
efficiency. Leads longest use of tool.
1 and 2 are the causes of undesirable premature loss of the tool.
Types of wears:
• Crater wear: measured by the area or depth.
• Flank wear: measured by the width (Notch wear)
• Nose wear: chipping of the nose.
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The specific mechanism that cause tool wear:
1) Abrasion: Mechanical wearing, hard particles in workpiece
removes small portions of the tool, that cause flank and crater
wear. This is the dominant cause of flank wear.
2) Adhesion:Two metals contact under high pressure and
temperature that cause welding between the materials.
3) Diffusion:Atoms on the boundry of workpiece and tool
changes place. This is the principle cause for crater wear.
4) Plastic Deformation:Cutting forces acting on the cutting
edge at high temperature cause the edge to deform plastically.
This cause flank wear.

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Tool Life:
In a classic study by F. W. Taylor on machining steels, the
approximate relationship was established as
V.Tn = C
V: Cutting speed
T: Time to develop flank wear
n: Exponent that depends on tool and workpiece material
C: Cutting speed at T=1

Means that each combination of workpiece and tool materials and

cutting speed has its own n, C values.

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Continue...
Same equation can be written as
V.Tn. dx. fy = C
d: Depth of cut
f: Feed rate

Because, feed rate and depth in cutting are also very important,
These are added to the equation, where x and y values are also be
determined experimentally.

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3) Temperature rise:
Cutting temperature is really high in especially metal cutting
operations. About 98% of the total energy consumed by the machine
tool is converted into heat. There are several methods to measure the
heat on the cutting tool or the work part. Also there are some analytical
methods to calculate the temperature on the cutting tool or work part.
Knowledge of temperature rise is important, because
-Excessive temperature adversly affects the strength, hardness and wear
resistance of cutting tool
-Heat causes dimensional changes in the part being machined
-Heat affects material properties on the surface of cut
-Heat may cause distortion on the machine (pure dimension control)

Analytic Method to measure mean temperature in turning operation

T=Va.fb
V:cutting speed (ft/min or m/min), f:feed of the tool(in/rev or m/rev)
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Cook’s method:
An analytical method to measure the cutting temperature
T=0.4*(U/ρ *C)(V*to/K)0.333 (°F or °C)
Where
U:Specific energy (in-lb/in3or N-m/mm3)
V: Cutting speed (in/sec or m/sec)
to : chip thickness before cut (in or m)
ρ *C: Volumetric specification heat of work material(in-lb/in3-°F or
J/mm3-°C
K: Thermal diffusivity of the work material (in2/sec or m2/sec)
Temperature measurement methods:
- Tool-chip thermo couplesembeded on tool and work part.(not an easy
application)
- Thermal emf (electro motive force)
- Infrared radiation (cutting zone monitored with radiation prometer,
measures only the surface temperature)
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4) Type of chip produced:
-Continuous
Usually form with ductile materials at high cutting speeds and/or
high rake angles.

Generally produce good surface finish.

Not desired on CNC, because chip may tangle around the tool
holder. To avoid this problem chip breakers used. There are two
types of chip breaker
• Groove type: designed into the cutting tool itself
• Obstruction type: additional device on the rake face of the tool.

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4) Type of chip produced: (Continue...)
-BUE(Built up edge)
Layer of materials from the work part gradually deposited on the
tool becomes unstable and breaks up to the surface of the work part.

Bad surface finish.

Actually a little BUE on the tool desirable, not too much, to protect
tool’s wear on the rake face.

Cold worked metal has less tendency to form BUE than that has
been coated.
BUE can be reduced by decreasing depth of cut, increasing rake
Angle, using sharper tool and effective cutting fluid, and stiffer
Machine tool.
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4) Type of chip produced: (Continue...)
-Serrated or segmented
Non-homogeneous and semi-continuous chips with zones of low and
high shear strain.

Metals with low thermal cunductivity exhibit this behavior.

Chips have saw tooth like appearence.

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4) Type of chip produced: (Continue...)
-Discontinuous
Segments loosely attached.
Brittle materials forms this type of chips. Also, impruties in the work
part is a cause for this type of chips.

Non-continuous chip results dimentional non-accuracy, and tool

damage.
Following cutting conditions are the main causes for discontinuous
chips
• Very low or very high cutting speed
• Large depth of cut
• Low rake angle
• Lack of cutting fluid
• Vibration on the machine tool
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4) Type of chip produced: (Continue...)

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Theory of chip formation in metal machining:
Since the practical machining is complex we use orthogonal cutting
model to explain the mechanics.
In this model we used wedge shaped tool. As the tool forced into the
material the chip is formed by shear deformation.

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As we know tool has two elements α ( rake angle) and clearance or
relief angle.
Lets define
to= chip thickness prior to chip formation (depth of cut)
tc= increased chip thickness along shear plane
r = cutting ratio (which is important when calculating cutting
conditions)
φ = shear plane angle in orthogonal cutting model

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Theory of chip formation in metal machining: (Continue..)

r = t o / tc

to=l. Sin φ
tc= l.Cos( φ - α )
Chip thickness is always greater than depth of cut, therefore, r is
always less than 1.

1/r = chip compression ratio (Measure of how thick the chip has
become compared to the depth of cut)

to is defined as depth of cut, but in turning operation it corresponds

to feed.
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Theory of chip formation in metal machining: (Continue..)
Practically we measure chip thickness by using micrometer or dial
caliper. From those values we calculate r, since we already know the
rake angle we can easily calculate φ , and also shear strain (γ ).

We know
τ = G. γ (shear stress) where
G = modulus of rigidity
γ = shear strain (angle in radians)
Remember
σ =P/A (axial stress)
P=axial force, A=area
σ = E.ε , E=modulus of elasticity
ε =∆ L/L , L=original length, ∆ L=deformation

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Theory of chip formation in metal machining: (Continue..)
From the picture we see that
γ = AC/DB= (AD+DC)/DB
γ = AD/DB + DC/DB
AD/DB =cot φ
DC/DB =tan (φ - α )
Therefore γ = cot φ + tan (φ - α )
φ has great significance in mechanics of cutting operations.

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5) Force and energy dissipated:
Force relationship
F=Friction force
N=Normal force
µ =coefficient of friction =F/N
R=Resultant force
Fs=Shear force
Fn=Normal to shear force
τ =Shear stress= Fs /As
As =Area of the shear plane
As = to . w/Sinφ
σ =Average normal stress=Fn/As
R’=Resultant force
For equilibrium R=R’ and angR= -ang R’
These forces can not be measured, but they can be calculated
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5) Force and energy dissipated (continue...)
Measured forces
Fc= Cutting force (measured by dynometers or force transducers, or
by calculating power consumption that occurs during cutting)
Fc supplies the energy required for the cutting.
Ft= Thrust force
Ft important to know to keep the work part and the machine
stiff.
F= Fc . Sin α +Ft . Cos α

N= Fc .Cos α - Ft . Sin α

Fs = Fc . Cos φ - Ft . Sin φ

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5) Force and energy dissipated (continue...)
Merchant Equation
From τ = Fs /As = (Fc . Cos φ - Ft . Sin φ )/ ( to . w/Sinφ )

Work material will select a shear plane angle that minimizes the the
energy. Therefore, take the derivative of τ w.r.t φ , equate it to 0, the
result is Merchant’s euation.
φ = 45+(α /2)-(β /2)
Results:
• As α increases, φ increases.
• As β decreases, φ increases.

If φ increases, then the area decreases so Fs, therefore machining

becomes easier to perform.

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5) Force and energy dissipated (continue...)
Approximation of turning operation by orthogonal cutting model

Turning Operation Orthogonal Cutting Model

Feed f Chip thickness before cut to

Depth d Width of cut w

Cutting speed v Cutting speed v

Cutting force Fc Cutting force Fc

Feed force Ff Thrust force Ft

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5) Force and energy dissipated (continue...)
POWER Calculations
Power=Fc.V (Power input in cutting)
Where V= velocity

This power is dissipated mainly in shear zone

Power for shearing= Fs .Vs

Specific energy for shearing= Us =Fs .Vs/w.to .V
Where w=width of cut

Power for friction= F .Vc

Specific energy for friction= Uf =F .Vc/w.to .V

Total specific energy =UIEt 262

= UClass
s +Uf
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MACHINING ECONOMICS
Optimizing cutting speed is formulated by W. Gilbert with
respect to Taylor’s tool life formula. There are two objectives
in this optimization

1) Maximizing production rate

2) Minimizing unit cost

Both objectives seek a balanced MRR and tool life.

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Maximizing Production Rate
Choose cutting speed to minimize machining time per
production unit.
In turning 3 elements contribute to the total production cycle
time for one part

1) Part handling time (loading+ unloading+ starting the

machining)=Th
2) Machining time (actual machining)=Tm
3) Tool change time (at the end of tool life, the tool must be
changed)=Tt .

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Maximizing Production Rate (continue)
Therefore total time per unit product for the operation cycle

Tc = Tm +Th +Tt /np

Where np =integer number of parts we can produce within the

tool life.

Our objective is to minimize Tc , which is the function of the

cutting speed.

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Maximizing Production Rate (continue)
Remember in Turning operation
Tm = π .D. L/ υ .f
Taylor’s tool life formula
υ.Tn =C ⇒ T=(C/ υ)1/n

np=T/ Tm ⇒ np =(C/ υ)1/n . υ .f / π .D. L = C1/n . f / π .D. L . υ(1/n)-1

Tc becomes
Tc = Th +π .D. L/ υ .f +(Tt . π .D. L . υ(1/n)-1 )/ C1/n . f
To minimize we need to take derivative of Tc w.r.t υ, and
equate it to 0.
Therefore the maximum υ= υmax =C/[{(1/n)-1}Tt] n
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Maximizing Production Rate (continue)
Means, we have maximum production for this value of υ.

The corresponding tool life is

Tmax =[(1/n )– 1]. Tt

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Minimizing cost per unit
Choose cutting speed to minimize production cost per unit
product.
In turning 4 elements contribute to the total production cost for
one part (cost rate is $/min)

1)Cost of part handling time(cost of the time that operator

spends loading and unloading the part)=Co .Th
2) Cost of machining time= Co . Tm
3) Cost of tool change time= Co . Tt /np
4) Tooling cost= Ct /np
Ct :cost for cutting edge=Pt/ne
Pt:Price of the tool
ne :number of cutting edges
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Minimizing cost per unit(continue)
If the tool is regrindable

Ct =Pt/ng+Tg . Cg

ng =number of tool lifes

Tg =time to grind
Cg =grinding labor cost

Therefore total cost per unit product for the operation cycle

Cc = Co.Th+Co . π .D. L/ υ .f +(Co. Tt+Ct)[π .D. L. υ[(1/n)-1] ]/f.C 1/n

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Minimizing cost per unit(continue)
To minimize the cost we need to take derivative of Cc w.r.t υ,
and equate it to 0.
Therefore the minimum υ,
υmin =C.[{n/ (1-n)}.(Co / (Co. Tt +Ct)] n

Means that it is the cost minimizing speed, and the

corresponding tool life is

Tmin =[(1/n)-1].(Co. Tt +Ct)/ Co

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