Chapter 5: Diffusion

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How does diffusion occur?

• Why is it an important part of processing?

• How can the rate of diffusion be predicted for

some simple cases?

• How does diffusion depend on structure

and temperature?

Chapter 5 - 1
 Diffusion
Diffusion - Mass transport by atomic motion

Mechanisms
• Gases & Liquids – random (Brownian) motion
• Solids – vacancy diffusion or interstitial diffusion

Chapter 5 - 2
 Diffusion
• Interdiffusion or impurity diffusion: In an alloy, atoms tend to
migrate from regions of high conc. to regions of low conc.
Initially After some time

Adapted from
Figs. 5.1 and
5.2, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 5 - 3
 Diffusion
• Self-diffusion: In an elemental solid, atoms
also migrate.
Label some atoms After some time
C
C
A D
A
D
B
B

Chapter 5 - 4
 Diffusion Mechanisms
1) Vacancy Diffusion:
• atoms exchange with vacancies
• applies to substitutional impurities atoms
• rate depends on:
-- number of vacancies
-- activation energy to exchange.

increasing elapsed time

Chapter 5 - 5
 Diffusion Mechanisms
• Interstitial diffusion – smaller atoms can
diffuse between atoms.

Adapted from Fig. 5.3(b), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

More rapid than vacancy diffusion

Chapter 5 - 6
 Processing Using Diffusion
• Case Hardening:
Adapted from
-- Diffuse carbon atoms chapter-opening
into the host iron atoms photograph,
Chapter 5,
at the surface. Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
-- Example of interstitial (Courtesy of
Surface Division,
diffusion is a case Midland-Ross.)

hardened gear.

• Result: The presence of C

atoms makes iron (steel) harder.

Chapter 5 - 7
 Processing Using Diffusion
• Doping silicon with phosphorus for n-type semiconductors:
• Process: 0.5 mm
1. Deposit P rich
layers on surface.
magnified image of a computer chip

silicon
2. Heat it.
3. Result: Doped light regions: Si atoms
semiconductor
regions.

light regions: Al atoms

silicon
Adapted from Figure 18.27, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e. Chapter 5 - 8
 Diffusion
• How do we quantify the amount or rate of diffusion?

moles (or mass) diffusing mol kg

J  Flux   or
 surface area time  cm s m2s
2

• Measured empirically
– Make thin film (membrane) of
known surface area
– Impose concentration gradient
– Measure how fast atoms or
molecules diffuse through the
membrane
– J is diffusion flux

M l dM
J 
At A dt

Chapter 5 - 9
 Steady-State Diffusion
Rate of diffusion independent of time
dC
Flux proportional to concentration gradient =
dx
C1 C1 Fick’s first law – diffusion
flux for steady state
(single direction)
C2 C2
dC
x1 x x2
J  D
dx
dC C C2  C1 D  diffusion coefficient, from
if linear   High to low concentration
dx x x2  x1
dC
= Also termed as the driving force
dx Chapter 5 - 10
 Example: Chemical Protective
Clothing (CPC)
• Methylene chloride is a common ingredient of paint
removers. Besides being an irritant, it also may be
absorbed through skin. When using this paint
remover, protective gloves should be worn.
• If butyl rubber gloves (0.04 cm thick) are used, what
is the diffusive flux of methylene chloride through the
glove?
• Data:
– diffusion coefficient in butyl rubber:
D = 110 x10-8 cm2/s
– surface concentrations: C1 = 0.44 g/cm3
C2 = 0.02 g/cm3

Chapter 5 - 11
 Example (cont).
• Solution – assuming linear conc. gradient
glove
C1 dC C2  C1
tb 
2 J  -D  D
paint
6D dx x2  x1
skin
remover
C2 Data: D = 110 x 10-8 cm2/s
x 1 x2 C1 = 0.44 g/cm3
C2 = 0.02 g/cm3
x2 – x1 = 0.04 cm

-8 2 (0.02 g/cm3  0.44 g/cm3 ) g

J   (110 x 10 cm /s)  1.16 x 10 -5
(0.04 cm) cm2s

Chapter 5 - 12
 Non-steady State Diffusion
• When diffusion flux and concentration gradient vary with time, resulting in a net accumulation or depletion of diffusing
species
• The concentration of diffusing species is a function of both time and position C = C(x,t)
• In this case Fick’s Second Law is used

Fick’s Second Law C  2C

D 2
t x

Chapter 5 - 13
 Non-steady State Diffusion
• Copper diffuses into a bar of aluminum.
Surface conc.,
Cs of Cu atoms bar
pre-existing conc., Co of copper atoms

Cs

Adapted from
Fig. 5.5,
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

B.C. at t = 0, C = Co for 0  x  
at t > 0, C = CS for x = 0 (constant surface conc.)
C = Co for x = 
Chapter 5 - 14
 Solution:
C  x , t   Co  x 
 1  erf  
Cs  Co  2 Dt 

C(x,t) = Conc. at point x at

CS
time t
erf (z) = Gaussian error
function
C(x,t)
2 z

2
 e  y dy
 0
Co
erf(z) values are given in Table
5.1 Adapted from Fig. 5.5,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 5 - 15
Table 5.1. Tabulation of Error Function Values

Chapter 5 - 16
 Non-steady State Diffusion
Sample Problem:
A uniform carbon concentration of 0.25 wt% is to be treated
at 950OC. If the concentration of carbon at the surface is
suddenly brought to and maintained at 1.20 wt%, how long
will it take to achieve a carbon content of 0.80 wt% at a
position 0.5 mm below the surface? The diffusion coefficient
for carbon in iron at this temperature is 1.6 x 10-11 m2/s.
Given: CO = 0.25 wt% C CS = 1.20 wt% C
Cx = 0.80 wt% C D = 1.6 x 10-11 m2/s
x = 0.50 mm = 5 x 10-4 m

Chapter 5 - 17
 Solution:
Cx – CO = 0.80 – 0.25 = 1 – erf __5 x 10-4 m____
CS – CO 1.20 – 0.25 2 √1.6 x 10-11 m2/s (t)
0.4210 = erf 62.5 s1/2
√t
From Table 5.1, through interpolation
0.35 0.3794
x 0.4210
0.40 0.4284
z = 0.392
62.5 s1/2 = 0.392
√t
t = 25,400 s = 7.1 h
Chapter 5 - 18
 Factors That Influence Diffusion
1. Diffusing Species and the host material. For
ex: D value for carbon interdiffusion in iron > self-
diffusion.
2. Temperature
D = DO exp (Qd /RT)
DO = a temperature-independent (m2/s)
Qd = activation energy (J/mol or eV/atom)
R = gas constant (8.31 J/mol-K or 8.62 x 10-5 eV/atom-K
T = absolute temperature

Chapter 5 - 19
Diffusion Data

Chapter 5 - 20
 Non-steady State Diffusion
• Sample Problem: An FCC iron-carbon alloy initially
containing 0.20 wt% C is carburized at an elevated
temperature and in an atmosphere that gives a
surface carbon concentration constant at 1.0 wt%. If
after 49.5 h the concentration of carbon is 0.35 wt%
at a position 4.0 mm below the surface, determine
the temperature at which the treatment was carried
out.

C( x, t )  Co  x 
• Solution: use Eqn. 5.5  1  erf  
Cs  Co  2 Dt 

Chapter 5 - 21
 C ( x , t )  Co  x 
Solution (cont.):  1  erf  
Cs  Co  2 Dt 

– t = 49.5 h x = 4 x 10-3 m
– Cx = 0.35 wt% Cs = 1.0 wt%
– Co = 0.20 wt% D = 1.6 x 10-11 m2/s

C( x, t )  Co 0.35  0.20  x 
  1  erf    1  erf ( z )
Cs  Co 1.0  0.20  2 Dt 

 erf(z) = 0.8125

Chapter 5 - 22
Solution (cont.):
We must now determine from Table 5.1 the value of z for which the
error function is 0.8125. An interpolation is necessary as follows

z erf(z) z  0.90 0.8125  0.7970


0.95  0.90 0.8209  0.7970
0.90 0.7970
z 0.8125 z  0.93
0.95 0.8209

Now solve for D x x2

z D
2 Dt 4 z 2t

 x2  3 2
( 4 x 10 m) 1h
D      2.6 x 10 11 m2 /s
 4z 2t  ( 4)(0.93)2 ( 49.5 h) 3600 s
 
Chapter 5 - 23
 Solution (cont.):
• To solve for the temperature at Qd
T 
which D has the above value, R(lnDo  lnD )
we use a rearranged form of
Equation (5.9a);
from Table 5.2, for diffusion of C in FCC Fe
Do = 2.3 x 10-5 m2/s Qd = 148,000 J/mol

148,000 J/mol
 T
(8.314 J/mol - K)(ln 2.3 x10 5 m2 /s  ln 2.6 x10 11 m2 /s)

T = 1300 K = 1027ºC

Chapter 5 - 24
 Example: Chemical Protective
Clothing (CPC)
• Methylene chloride is a common ingredient of paint removers.
Besides being an irritant, it also may be absorbed through skin.
When using this paint remover, protective gloves should be
worn.
• If butyl rubber gloves (0.04 cm thick) are used, what is the
breakthrough time (tb), i.e., how long could the gloves be used
before methylene chloride reaches the hand?
• Data
– diffusion coefficient in butyl rubber:
D = 110 x10-8 cm2/s

Chapter 5 - 25
 CPC Example (cont.)
• Solution – assuming linear conc. gradient
glove Breakthrough time = tb
C1
2 Equation from online CPC

tb 
Case Study 5 at the Student
paint skin Companion Site for Callister &
remover 6D Rethwisch 8e
(www.wiley.com/
C2 college/callister)
  x2  x1  0.04 cm
x 1 x2
D = 110 x 10-8 cm2/s

(0.04 cm)2
tb   240 s  4 min
-8 2
(6)(110 x 10 cm /s)

Time required for breakthrough ca. 4 min

Chapter 5 - 26
 Summary
Diffusion FASTER for... Diffusion SLOWER for...

• open crystal structures • close-packed structures

• materials w/secondary • materials w/covalent

bonding bonding

• smaller diffusing atoms • larger diffusing atoms

• lower density materials • higher density materials

Chapter 5 - 27
Table 1. Error Function Values

z erf(z) z erf(z) z erf(z) z erf(z) z erf(z) z erf(z)

0 0 0.25 0.2763 0.55 0.5633 0.85 0.7707 1.3 0.9340 1.9 0.9928

0.03 0.0282 0.30 0.3286 0.60 0.6039 0.90 0.7970 1.4 0.952 2.0 0.9953

0.05 0.0564 0.35 0.3794 0.65 0.6420 0.95 0.8209 1.5 0.966 2.2 0.9981

0.10 0.1125 0.40 0.4284 0.70 0.6778 1.0 0.8427 1.6 0.976 2.4 0.9993

0.15 0.1680 0.45 0.4755 0.75 0.7112 1.1 0.8802 1.7 0.984 2.6 0.9998

0.20 0.2227 0.50 0.5205 0.80 0.7421 1.2 0.9103 1.8 0.989 2.8 0.9999

Chapter 5 - 28
 • Table 2. Diffusion Data
Qd,
cal/m
Diffusion Couple Qd, cal/mol Do, cm2/s Diffusion Couple ol Do, cm2/s
Interstitial diffusion     Self-diffusion (vacancy diffusion)
49,30
C in FCC iron 32,900 0.23 Cu in FCC Cu 0 0.36
66,70
C in BCC iron 20,900 0.011 Fe in FCC Fe 0 0.65
21,80
N in FCC iron 34,600 0.0034 Zn in HCP Zn 0 0.10
32,20
N in BCC iron 18,300 0.0047 Mg in HCP Mg 0 1.0
58,90
H in FCC iron 10,300 0.0063 Fe in BCC Fe 0 4.1
143,3
H in BCC iron 3,600 0.0012 W in BCC W 00 1.88
110,0
Self-diffusion (vacancy diffusion) Si in Si (covalent) 00 1800
163,0
Pb in FCC Pb 25,900 1.27 C in C (covalent) 00 5.0
Al in FCC Al 32,200 0.10      
Qd,
cal/m
Diffusion Couple Qd, cal/mol Do, cm2/s Diffusion Couple ol Do, cm2/s
40,20
Heterogeneous diffusion (vacancy diffusion) Ag in Au 0 0.072
39,50
Ni in Cu 57,900 2.30 Al in Cu 0 0.045
114,0
Cu in Ni 61,500 0.65 Al in Al2O3 00 28.0
152,0
Zn in Cu 43,900 0.78 O in Al2O3 00 1900.0
79,00
Ni in FCC iron 64,000 4.10 Mg in MgO 0 0.249
82,10 Chapter 5 -
29
Au in Ag 45,500 0.26 O in MgO 0 4.3E-05
End : DIFFUSION

Chapter 5 - 30
 Exercises:
1. In the purification of H2 gas by diffusion through a Pd sheet, compute the
number of kg of H2 that pass per hour through a 6-mm thick sheet of Pd having
an area of 0.25 m2 at 600OC. Assume a diffusion coefficient of 1.7 x 10-8 m2/s,
that the respective concentrations at the high-and-low pressure sides of the
plate are 2.0 and 0.4kg of H2 gas per cubic meter of Pd, and that steady-state
conditions have been attained.
2. A sheet of steel 2.5mm thick has N2 atmospheres on both sides at 900OC and is
permitted to achieve a steady-state diffusion condition. The diffusion
coefficient for N2 in steel at this temperature is 1.85 x 10-10 m2/s, and the
diffusion flux is found to be 1.0 x 10-7 kg/m2-s. it is known that the
concentration of N2 in the steel at high pressure surface is 2 kg/m 3. how far into
the sheet from the high pressure side will the concentration be 0.5 kg/m 3?

Chapter 5 - 31
3. Determine the carburizing time necessary to achieve a carbon
concentration of 0.30wt% at a position 4 mm into an iron-carbon alloy
that initially contains 0.10wt% C. the surface concentration is to be
maintained at 0.90wt% C, and the treatment is to be conducted at
1100oC. Use the diffusion data for γ-Fe in the accompanying table.
Diffusion Table for Selected Materials
Diffusing Host Do Activation Energy Calculated Values
Species Metal m2/s kJ/mol eV/atom T (oC) D(m2/s)
Fe  - Fe 2.8x10-4 251 2.60 500 3.0x10-21
  BCC       900 1.8x10-15
Fe  - Fe 5.0x10-5 284 2.94 900 1.1x10-17
  FCC       1100 7.8x10-16
C  - Fe 6.2x10-7 80 0.83 500 2.4x10-12
          900 1.7x10-10
C  - Fe 2.3x10-5 148 1.53 900 5.9x10-12
          1100 5.3x10-11
Cu Cu 7.8x10-5 211 2.19 500 4.2x10-19
Zn Cu 2.4x10-5 189 1.96 500 4.0x10-18
Al Al 2.3x10-4 144 1.49 500 4.2x10-14
Cu Al 6.5x10-5 136 1.41 500 4.1x10-14
Mg Al 1.2x10-4 131 1.35 500 1.9x10-13
Cu Ni 2.7x10-5 256 2.65 500 1.3x10-22 Chapter 5 - 32
4. An FCC iron-carbon alloy initially containing 0.55 wt% C is exposed
to an oxygen-rich and carbon-free atmosphere at 1052oC. The
carbon diffuses from the alloy and reacts at the surface with the O2
in the atmosphere – that is, the carbon concentration is maintained
at 0 wt% C. At what position will the carbon concentration be 0.25
wt% after a 10-h treatment? The value of D is 3.3 x 10-11 m2/s.

Chapter 5 - 33
 Stress and Strain
1. A specimen copper having a rectangular cross section
15.2 mm x 19.1 mm is pulled in tension with 44,500N
force, producing only elastic deformation. Calculate the
resulting strain.
2. A cylindrical specimen of a nickel alloy having an
elastic modulus of 207 Gpa and an original diameter of
10.2 mm experiences only elastic deformation when a
tensile load of 8900 N is applied. Compute the
maximum length of the specimen before deformation if
the maximum allowable elongation is 0.25 mm.

Chapter 5 - 34
3. Consider a cylindrical specimen of some hypothetical metal
alloy that has a diameter of 8.0 mm. A tensile force of 1000
N produces an elastic reduction in diameter of 2.8 x 10-4
mm. compute the modulus of elasticity for this alloy, given
that Poisson’s ratio is 0.30.

3. A cylindrical metal specimen having an original diameter of

12.8 mm and gauge length of 50.80 mm is pulled in tension
until fracture occurs. The diameter at the point of fracture is
6.60 mm, and the fractured gauge length is 72.14 mm.
calculate the ductility in terms of % reduction in area and %
elongation.

Chapter 5 - 35