Concept of Data

• Data collection is an important work of research.

• Data helps to find out accurate results.
• The process of collecting information from the field of
inquiry by the investigators themselves or by their
agents is called data collection.
• If the collected data are reliable, then the decision will
be correct otherwise the results will be misleading and
may be harmful too.
 Primary data
• The data which are collected from the field
under the control and supervision of an
investigator.
• Primary data means original data that has
been collected specially for the purpose in
mind.
• This type of data are generally a fresh and
collected for the first time.
 Secondary data
• The data are collected by one agency, organization or person
for their own purpose and later used by another agency,
organization or person are called secondary data
• These type of data are not original for the user.
• These are also called second hand data.
• These data are collected by someone and obtained from some
published and unpublished sources.
• Same data is primary data to those who collect it but same data
is secondary data for the next person.
• For e.g. data collected by Nepal Rastra Bank related to
national income is primary data to NRB but same data is
secondary data to the other ministries, departments and
individuals.
 Sources of secondary data
1.Published sources
a. Government reports and publications
b. Publication of semi-government organizations
c. Reports and publications of international
organizations
d. Private publications
2.Unpublished sources
3.Computarized Database
 1.Published Sources
• Varies agencies like government, non-government and private and
individuals collect primary data for their research and publish such
data for the knowledge of concerned people and organizations.
• Such published data may be used by the other researchers for their
purpose.
• These data are secondary data to the second researchers.
Types:-
a. Government reports and publications
Progress report, research report of government offices like Ministries
Departments, Nepal Rastra Bank, Central Bureau of Statistics, Planning
commission in the form of boos or booklets
b. Publication of semi-government organizations
Industrial Service Centre, Trade promotion Centre, Nepal Airlines
Corporation, Nepal Food Corporation published report and books time
and again.
c. Reports and publications of international
organizations
Research report and progress report published by
international organizations like World bank, World Health
Organizations, United Nation, Asian Development Bank,
International Labor Organizations.
d. Private Publications
Reports published by different various individuals , business
houses, Chamber of Commerce, and various NGOs and
INGOs.
 2.Unpublished sources
• Some data and information are not published after the
completion of the work.
• Reports of private offices and organizations, some
secret information of government and non-government
organizations, record of hospitals, schools and
dissertations of students are some unpublished sources
of data.
3.Computerized Database
Computerized database like online, internet, offline, CD-
ROM.
 Advantages of using Secondary data
• Secondary data is readymade data.
• They are proven data.
• Uses of secondary data have plenty of advantages. Some of these are:-
a. Easy to generalize
Data are developed and tested by number of individuals and organizations in the
past. So, it is easier to generalize the findings.
b. Economical
Data is readymade so additional time, resource and cost is not required for
collection of data.
c. Quick access
Tested data is already developed and published by other organizations and
individuals so data can be easily found without wasting time.
d. Helps to cross check
Findings of primary data can be checked with the reference of secondary data.
e. Reliability
It is many times tested data and based on reality so findings drawn from it will high
reliability.
 Disadvantages of using secondary data
a. Determination of reliability of secondary data is vey difficult
because secondary data are developed in one situation but issue
might be different.

b. Data may be manipulated by the previous researcher to achieve

the research objectives so. Reliability of secondary data may be
questionable

c. Secondary data may not be appropriate in solving the particular

problem because the information may be out of date.

d. Different projects use different criteria of measurement so it may

not be comparable and usable for the present research purpose.
 Methods of Primary data collection

1. Questionnaire
2. Interview
3. Observation
 1.Questionnaire
• A questionnaire is a formal list of questions designed to gather
response from respondents on a given topic, issue or event.
• Questionnaire can be designed to secure different type of
primary data related to intentions, attitudes, opinions,
activities, behavior, demographic, socio-economic and other
factors.
• The proper questionnaire design is essential for quality of data.
• Questionnaires are delivered to the respondents personally or
by mail or email or internet then respondent fill it up and
return or sent back to the researcher.
 Principles of questionnaire writing
• Researcher should consider to certain guidelines while designing and
administering the questions is called principles of questionnaire.
• Major principles of questionnaire are:-
a. Clear, precise and unambiguous
b. Use of natural and familiar language
c. Unbiased
d. Avoid double-barreled questions
e. State definite alternatives
f. Reliable and valid
g. Length of questionnaire
h. Match the objectives
i. Consider to participants
j. Pilot survey and improving the questionnaire
 Components/ contents of questionnaire writing
Parts of questionnaire are arranged in the following ways while
preparing questionnaire.
1.Parts incorporating explanatory information
In this part, researcher provides information about the need of
information, objective of collection of information, reasons of
filling the questionnaire.
Following information should include in this part while preparing
the questionnaire by the researcher:-
a. Introduction of researcher and research organization.
b. Main objectives of research
c. Guidelines to fill up the questionnaire
d. Assurance of secrecy of responses provided by the respondents
e. Thanks for participating in the research work.
 2.Main part(basic information)
• It is a part which consists of number of questions and probable
answers of those questions.
• In this part, researcher enlists the questions for the collection of
data with the purpose of solving the research problem.
• This part of questionnaire covers all necessary subjects under
study.
3.Part incorporating personal information(classification
information)
• This part usually covers socio-demographic variables of the
respondents.
• This part incorporates age, gender, education, marital status ,
income , occupation,
• Such information is also important to prepare profile of the
respondents and determining significant differences between the
different group of the respondents.
 2. Interview
• It is a method of collecting primary data where
interviewer and interviewee personally asks the
questions and gives the answer.
• It is a medium of expressing internal interest, attitude
and feelings.
• Researcher asks questions on the issue of his or her
interest and records the answers of respondents in a
paper or tape or videos in research interview.
• Interviewer should not give direction to the respondents
but can put queries and motivate to the respondents.
• Interviewing is an art. So, interviewer must have an art
and knowledge of taking interview.
 Types of research interview

• Research interview differs as per the structure of

interview and objectives of the research.
• Research interviews can be classified on the basis of
relationship between interviewer and interviewee.
Types:-
a. Personal or face to face interview
b. Telephone interview
c. Computer assisted interview(CAI)
 a. Personal or face to face interview
• Interview where interviewer talks to the respondents or
asks the questions to the respondents directly is known
as personal or face to face interview.
• Interviewer and respondents interacts each other so that
the interviewer can obtain depth and reliable
information.
• Interviewer can also collect the information from non-
verbal communication i.e. gestures and facial
expressions.
• Personal interview can be undertake in the home of
respondents or place of employment or any other
suitable places.
 Advantages of using personal interview
I. Possibility of clear answer because the researcher
can ask questions until and unless the clear answer
of question is obtained.
II. Researchers can collect the information by watching
gestures and facial expression of the respondents.
III. Researcher can understand the attitude of the
respondents towards the event or research issue.
IV. Response rate will be higher.
 Disadvantages of using personal interview

I. It is not practicable for more respondents because it

is more costly and time consuming.
II. Researcher should give training to the surveyor to
reduce the biasness so it is expensive.
III. Respondents do not like to give interview to
unknown person. Even, they are ready, they do not
provide real information.
IV. Respondents fear about lack of anonymity.
 b. Telephone interview method
• When a researcher takes the interview from the
widely spread respondents using telephone and time
available for interview is short, such interview is
known as telephone method.
• Because of the wide distribution of telephone service,
this method is widely accepted and adopted by the
researcher nowdays.
 Advantages of Telephone interview method
i. It is flexible method because scope of interview
can be increased or decreased.
ii. Researcher first finds out the related person and
their telephone number then researcher can contact
the respondents in less time with less labour.
iii. Respondents can tell any information that may be
difficult to tell in personal interview. So, response
will be more reliable.
iv. It is cheaper method because researcher can meet
the respondent with the help of the telephone.
v. The response rate will be high.
 Disadvantages of Telephone interview method
i. Researcher can conclude interview without
providing pre-notice. So, there is chance of
incomplete information.
ii. There is no chance of verbal communication.
iii. Researcher can not contact to those who do not have
telephone facilities. So, this is only for limited
respondents.
iv. Chances of biasness is high.
v. Respondent could terminate the interview by
hanging up without any warning.
 c. Computer assisted interview(CAI)
• Interview that is conducted using computer especially laptop rather
than using paper questionnaire is known as computer assisted
interview.
• It is also called also called Computer-Assisted Survey information
Collection(CASIC).
Types of CAI:-
1.CAPI(Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing)
Interviewer reads questions from the screen and responses of respondents
are typed into designated fields.
2.CATI(Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing)
Similar to CAPI and is used in telephone interviews.
3.CASI(Computer Assisted Self Interviewing)
Generally used in case of sensitive nature, such as crime and offending or
sexual behaviors and attitudes). Respondents are given the laptop and are
able to enter their responses themselves so it increases the validity of
responses and they will give true answer.
 3. Observation
• A method of collecting data where researcher observes,
analyze, and interprets the events or works personally is
known as observation.
• Researcher does not ask the questions bur observes the
events and keeps the record of important information and
facts.
• Besides, collecting data visually, observation involves
listening, reading, smelling and touching.
• This method is particularly suitable in studies which deal
with those people who are not capable of giving verbal
reports or their feelings due to any reasons.
• It removes the difficulties of interviews and used in every
scientific research.
 Methods/Types of observation
1.Structured and unstructured observation
• When observation is made by characterizing style of recording
the observed information, standardized conditions of
observation, definition of the units to be observed and selection
of pertinent data of observation then it is structured observation.
• When observation is done without any thought before
observation then it is called unstructured observation.
2.Participant and non participant observation
• When the observer is a member of the group which is observing
then it is participant observation.
• When the observer is observing people without giving ay
information to them is known as non-participant observation.
 3. Controlled and controlled observation

• When the observation takes place according to definite

pre-arranged plan and with experimental procedures
then it is called controlled observation.
• Generally, it is done in laboratories.
• When observation takes place in natural condition then
it is called uncontrolled observation.
• It is done to get spontaneous picture of life and persons.
Data Analysis
• Data collected from different sources (Primary &
Secondary) are evaluated and interpreted so as to achieve
the result.
• Data can be analyzed and interpreted using statistical,
econometric and mathematical techniques is known as
data analysis.
• Data analysis is the process of gathering, arranging,
classifying, modeling and analyzing the data with the
purpose of generating useful information.
 Organizing and preparing data
• Organizing and preparing of data require knowledge of
some technical methods.
• This is definite sequence for analyzing data.
• The overall process of analyzing data can be viewed as
involving a number of separate and sequential steps.
• The activities in data processing include:-
1. Editing
2. Coding
3. Classification
4. Tabulation
5. Summarizing of Data
 1. Editing
• Editing is the first step in data processing.
• Editing implies checking and correcting the data gathered from
questionnaires, interviews, and observations in a systematic way to
ensure their accuracy and completeness.
• Sometimes respondents want to hide the real information or complete
the questionnaire without understanding them such data requires
editing.
• Editing of data in field by the surveyor on the basis of his/her
experience is called field editing and editing the data in the office by
the editor alone or jointly is called central editing.
Editor should follow the following rules while editing the data
1. Be familiar with instruction given to interviewer and interviewees.
2. Do not destroy and erase the original entry.
3. Make all edited entries on an instrument in some distinctive colour.
4. Place initial signature and date of editing on each instrument
completed
 2.Coding
 The act of assigning numbers or other symbols to the responses of the
respondents so that the responses can be grouped into a limited
number of categories is known as coding.
 Coding is essential for the analysis of the data.
 Nowdays, computer is used for coding the data.
 Instead of entering the word male or female in a response to a question
that asks for their identification of one’s gender, we would use numeric
codes( for eg, 0 for male and 1 for female). Such process of providing,
0 for male &1 for female is known as coding.
 SPSS/Excel/PSPP/SAS etc can be used for coding the data.
Following rules are to be followed while coding
1. Coding should avoid unclarity and duality.
2. All the codes used are to be defined.
3. Codes are to be recorded in code book.
4. It should be mutually exclusive.
 3.Classifiction
• Classification means separating items according to
similar characteristics and grouping them into various
class.
• Collected data as per the research objective may not be
ready for the comparison and analysis until and unless
they are systematically arranged and even they cannot be
understood.
Classification can be made on the following basis:-
a. Geographical classification
b. Chronological classification
c. Qualitative classification
d. Quantitative classification
 4. Tabulation
• Tabulation is the process of arranging the data in a
systematic manner into rows and column.
• Rows are horizontal arrangement and columns are
vertical arrangement.
Advantages of Tabulation:-
a. Helps to make data easily understandable.
b. Facilitates comparison.
c. Saves time and energy.
d. Avoids repetition.
e. Can easily remember.
 Main parts of a table
Parts of table depend on the nature of research, design of data and
objective of research. Main parts that are used in table commonly
are:-
a. Number of table
b. Title of the table
c. Column caption
d. Title of the row
e. Body of the table
f. Head note
g. Footnote
h. Sources
 Rules for tabulation of data
There is no hard and fast rules for preparing data and it depends
upon nature and objectives of research. Even, some fundamentals
rules are to be followed while preparing table. They are:-
a. Table should be precise, clear, correct and attractive
b. Tables should be drawn based on the objectives of the research.
c. The units of measurement under each headings or sub-headings
must be indicated (eg. Weight in kg, length in meter etc).
d. Title should be proper for each table.
e. Different types of letters can be used for figures.
 5.Summarizing of the data
• Researcher, first of all, collects raw data. Such raw data are edited, coded and
classified into different groups. After these works, researcher presents the data
in precise form so as to make easier for describing, analyzing and interpreting
the data is known as summarizing of the data.
• Summary of data may be presented in the form of table, charts or graphs.
A. Presenting Data in Tables
 Arrangement of data in rows and columns in systematic order is known as
table.
 On the basis of construction table can be classified as follows.
a. Simple table
 A table that presents the data based on single characteristics is known as
simple table.
 It is also known as one way table.eg.
b. Complex Table
A table that presents more than one feature of the data is known as
complex table.
Types:-
i. Two way table
 A table that presents the two characteristics of the data is known
as two way table.
 It is formed by dividing to the caption or row head into two
parts.
 Eg.
ii. Three way table
A table that presents the three characteristics of the data is known
as three way table.
Eg.
iii. Manifold table
 If the table shows more than three characteristics of the data is
known as manifold data.
 B. Presenting data in Graphs and Charts
• The techniques of tabulation help us in summarizing the collected
data and presenting them in systematic manner.
• Nowdays, data are presented in graphs and charts so as to present
the data in the shape of attractive and appealing pictures and charts.
• Graphs and charts attract the people.
• Following information provides some insights to decide the form
of graphs and charts.
i. To present highest and lowest figure a variable, simple bar
diagram can be constructed.
ii. To present the ratio of any variable, pie chart can be prepared.
iii. To present the trend of variables, line chart and time series graph
is prepared.
iv. To present the scatteredness of variable, scattered diagram m is
prepared.
 Advantages of diagram

• Diagram creates impression on the mind of the observer.

• It is easy to understand.
• Extra mental effort is not necessary to understand the data
because it presents everything at a glance.
• It facilitates comparison of data.
• It saves time and labour.
• It helps to remember the facts for a longer period of time.
 General rules for constructing diagram

1. Title
2. Proper proportion between width and height
3. Selection of scale
4. Neatness and cleanliness
5. Footnote selection of diagram
6. Simplicity
7. Index
 Types of diagram

1.Bar diagram
i. Simple bar diagram
ii. Sub-divided bar diagram
iii. Percentage bar diagram
iv. Multiple bar diagram
2.Pie chart
 Types of graph
1. Time series graph
2. Scattered diagram
3. Graphs presenting functional relationship
i. Liner relationship
ii. Non-linear relationship
 Statistical Techniques
• The first work of research is data collection. Second work is to arrange and
present the data in logical order. After managing the data in workable
design, data are analyzed using statistical tools to draw the conclusions is
known as statistical analysis.
• Analysis of data is, generally, classified into two groups:
1. Descriptive Statistics
2. Inferential Statistics
1.Decretive statistics
 Those statistical tools which are used to explain the activities or
fundamental characteristics or behavior of a group or data is known as
descriptive statistics.
 Frequency, mean, median, mode, range, variance, standard deviation, inter
quartile range, percentile etc are taken as descriptive statistics.
 It helps to get the summarized information of sample units.
 Business man can assess the average of profit, ratio of profit and change
in profit from the sales of goods at a point of time
 Important conclusions cannot draw from descriptive statistics.
 Some of the descriptive statistical tools are:-
a. Frequency
b. Measurement of central tendency and dispersion
i. Mean
• Simple arithmetic mean
• Weighted arithmetic mean
• Geometric mean
ii. Median
iii. Mode
iv. Measures of dispersion
• Range
• Quartile deviation
• Mean deviation
• Standard deviation
 Inferential Statistics
 The statistical method that helps to estimate the population from
the analysis of sample data is known as inferential statistics.
 Census study is not possible in social science research. So,
researcher should estimate the population from the analysis of
sample.
 It helps to see the relationship between n independent and
independent variables and helps to decide the same relationship in
the population also.
 Inferential statistic helps to estimate the characteristics of
population from the sample and estimates the relationship
between dependent and independent variables.
 Types of inferential statistics
1. Estimation
a. Confidence interval
b. Parameter estimation
2. Hypothesis testing
 1. Estimation
• A statistic that is used to estimate the population parameter from
the analysis of sample is known as estimation statistic.
a. Confidence interval
 It helps to establish difference between two points.
 It is a range of value within which the analyst can declare with
some confidence, the population parameter lies in sample.
 It helps to estimate the value or characteristics of population
analyzing to the sample.
b. Parameter estimation
 It is a statistical method that helps to estimate the relationships of
variables that are in the population is known as parameter
estimation.
 Linear regression, correlation are some examples of parameter
estimation.
 2.Hypothesis testing
 The most common kind of statistical inference is
hypothesis testing.
 Setting up and testing hypothesis is an essential part of
statistical inference.
 Hypothesis-testing statistics allow us to use
mathematical principles to decide how likely it is that
our sample results match our hypothesis about a
population.
Procedures of hypothesis testing
Parametric and non-parametric test for testing hypothesis
Parametric test Non-parametric test
The test of hypothesis assuming that the Normally distributed population is
samples are taken from normally distributed not necessary.
population is known as parametric test.
Information about population must be No information about the
completely known. population is available.
Use of interval or ratio scale for the Use of nominal & ordinal scale for
collection of data. the collection of data.
It is more powerful than non-parametric test Less is less powerful than
parametric test
The null hypothesis is made on parameters of The null hypothesis is free from
the population distribution. parameters.

Mean is used for central measure Median is used for central measure
Eg. Z- test, t-test, ANOVA etc. Chi-square test, regression,
correlation etc.
 Important parametric tests in testing hypothesis
a. z-test
 Z-test is used to check the significance of mean; and
z-test can only be used when population is assumed to
be normally distributed.
Conditions on which z-test is used:-
i. The sample must be randomly selected.
ii. Population is normally distributed.
iii. Population variance is known.
iv. Sample size is more than 30.
v. Data must be quantitative.
 b. t-test
• t-test is used when the standard deviation of population
is unknown and the sample size is small.
Conditions on which t-test is used;-
i. Population is normally distributed.
ii. Data should be collected in either ratio or interval
scale.
iii. Standard deviation of the population is known.
iv. Sample size is small.
v. Samples are randomly selected.
vi. Groups have equal variance (homogeneity of variance)
 c. Analysis of variance(ANOVA)
• The t and z-test only test the difference in mean of one or
two sample.
• But study of more than two samples at a time is not
possible using the t and z-test.
• Thus, to study over the more than two samples at a time,
ANOVA is used.
Conditions on which ANOVA is used:-
i. Each group sample is drawn from a normally
distributed population
ii. All populations have a common variance
iii. All samples are drawn independently of each other
iv. Factor effects are additive
v. Level of data should be categorical.
Important Non-parametric Tests for Hypothesis Testing
a. Chi-square Test
Chi square test is rigorously used as non parametric test in
the research.
Generally, chi square test is used to check the dependency
of two or more than two groups.
Chi-square test is used when:-
i. The data is collected in nominal scale.
ii. The sample size is more than 50.expected frequency is
not less than 5.
iii. The individuals or events are divided into two or more
than two nominal groups.
• One sample test
• Two independent sample tests
 b. Correlation
• It shows the nature, direction and significance of
bivariate relationship or relationship between two
variables.
• The correlation is derived by assessing the variations in
one variable to another variable.
Various methods of correlation are:-
i. Product-moment correlation( karl pearsons correlation
coefficient)
ii. Rank order correlations( spearman’s rank order
correlation coefficient)
iii. Partial correlation
iv. Multiple correlation
 c. Regression Analysis
 A statistical technique that is used to see the degree of
relationship between dependent and independent
variable is known as regression analysis.
 It estimates the changes in the dependent variable due to
change in independent variables.
 Simple regression equation
Y=α+βx
 Multiple regression equation
Y=α+β1x1+ β2x2+ β3x3+………..+ βnxn+Ԑ
 d. Time series analysis
• A statistical technique that is used to study the variation in the
variables on the basis of time is known as time series analysis.
• This technique is rigorously used in business research such as
to study the change in production, sales etc due to pace of time.
• Time series is calculated using following formula.
X=f(t)
Where, x= variables and t= time value
Time series helps to predict the future trend based on past
activities.
Trend refers to upward and downward flow of activities in a
certain period of time.
Trend only does not impact to the activities but other elements
also impact to the activities of an organization.
 Methods of collecting qualitative data
1.Depth interview
Depth interviews are taken to explore needs, desires and
feelings of respondents.
Depth interview requires great skill on the part of the
interviewer and at the same time involve considerable time.
Unless the researchers has specialized training, depth
interviewing should not be attempted.
Open questions are put in this interview so, researchers
prepare questions in advance to put it in interview.
Researchers tries to find out the understanding level of
respondents.
Generally, responses of respondents are recorded.
 Following steps are to be followed while conducting
depth interview:-
i. Formulating plan to conduct depth interview.
ii. Determining the respondents based on their experience.
iii. Preparing guidelines to take interviews of all types of
respondents.
iv. Providing introduction ownself.
v. Taking interview and recording them.
vi. Analyzing the data
vii. Preparing report.
 2.Focus Group Interview
• A group that is selected to hold a discussion in the
subject of research on the basis of their experience so as
to collect information for the research is known as focus
group discussion.
• A focus group generally involves 6-10 persons.
• Focus group discussion is more suitable for gathering
information about certain specific issues particularly to
know the inner feelings and emotional attitudes of
participants.
• Focus group discussion requires skillful interviewer or
moderator and issue should be carefully prepared and
moderated.
Focus group discussion is more important in the following
conditions:-
i. To know in detail about any issue or subject.
ii. To develop the questions that will be used for research
purpose.
iii. To promote the new idea regarding products or
programs.
iv. To discuss the issues those are to e moderated by the
managers.
v. To create impression and perception over the product
and brand.
 Methods of Analyzing Qualitative Data

1. Content Analysis
2. Narrative Analysis
3. Thematic Analysis
 1.Content Analysis
• Content analysis is a research technique for the
systematic, objective and quantitative descriptions of the
content of data collected through interviews,
questionnaires, schedules and other expression in
written or verbal form.
• It is used to analyze the data obtained from case study,
detail from field and open-ended questions.
Features:-
1.Systematic
2.Objectivity
3.Generalizability
 Guidelines for Content Analysis
1. Clear operational definition of the units of analysis
2. Clear definition for the response category
3. Analysis of material
4. Decision on developing categories
5. Maintaining impartiality
6. The validity of the content analysis should be assessed
Limitations of Content Analysis
a. Non-reliable result
b. Difficult to categorize data/material
c. Difficult to get clear and appropriate information
d. Costly
e. Difficult to generalize
 Steps for Conducting Content Analysis
a. Identify the essential data
b. Develop bases for tabulation
c. Develop bases for content analysis
d. Develop the layout for the construction of design
e. Classify various variables into various groups
f. Establish procedures for the use of materials
g. Prepare outline of analysis and utilizing them
 2.Narrative Analysis
• A technique of recording and analyzing the information
and subject based on the story of the respondents or
people related to an event or subject matter is known as
narrative analysis.
• In this process, researcher requests to the respondents to
provide detail information related to a subject or events
on the basis of observation or experience.
• There is no pre determined question and respondents
are not asked to give the answers of the questions.
 Steps for narrative analysis
• Obtaining data
• Focusing on analysis of data obtained from
autobiography interview and focus group discussion etc.
• Codify data using sign and symbols to the classes of data.
• Identify the relationship among the various classes.
 3.Thematic Analysis
• Theme refers to the main point or quality of a subject or
event.
• A technique of qualitative data analysis that is used to
identify the major points of data, analyze them and
prepare report is known as thematic analysis.
• Thematic analysis is a work of searching theme of the
data, event or subjects that is important for the
description of the phenomena.
 Steps in Thematic Analysis

i. Reviewing the previous literature

ii. Generating initial codes
iii. Searching for themes
iv. Reviewing themes
v. Defining and naming themes
vi. Preparing report