SOLID STATE, HYBRID &

RESISTANCE WELDING PROCESSES

Dr.P.Sathiya
Associate Professor
Department of Production Engineering
National Institute of Technology
Tiruchirappalli-620 015
Email: psathiya@nitt.edu
 Friction Welding
• Friction welding is a solid state
process in which the heat is
generated by conversion of
mechanical energy in to the thermal
energy at the interfaces of the
components during rotation under
pressure.
 CONTINUOUS DRIVE FRICTION
WELDING
• one of the work-pieces is held stationary while the other is rotated at a constant speed.

• The rotating or stationary component is then advanced to contact with the other
component under axial pressure.

• The rubbing action breaks down surface contamination and generates frictional heat at the
interface.

• As the faying surfaces become hot and plastic, material begins to be extruded from the
interface to form a collar.

• When a pre-determined weld time has elapsed or a specified amount of axial shortening
has occurred, the rotation is stopped by declutching the drive and applying a brake.

• The axial force is maintained or increased (the latter is the common practice) to make the
weld.
Friction welding machine

Friction Welding
 Stages of friction
welding

Beginning of flash Flash development Forging

Friction Welding
 ADVANTAGES OF FRICTION
WELDING
• Powder metal components can be welded to other powder metals, forgings,
castings or wrought material.

• No consumables required - no flux, filler, or shielding gases required.

• Power requirements are as low as 20% of that required of conventional welding

processes. No special foundations or power supplies are needed.

• The metallurgical quality of friction welded joints is excellent. On account of

the low energy input, problems associated with melting and solidification can
be avoided and the heat-affected zone (HAZ) kept to a narrow width. The hot
torsional deformation results in a fine-grained structure with good mechanical
properties.

• Recently similar joints also have been fabricated by this friction welding
process owing to the inherent advantages of the process.
 APPLICATIONS OF FRICTION WELDING

• In the aircraft industry also, the joining of a turbine disc in a

nickel base alloy to a shaft in low alloy steel for gas turbine
engines.
• The application of friction welding for the manufacture of nozzle
of rocket motors and for joints between nodular cast iron pipe
and steel pipe for construction use has been reported from
Japan

Bimetallic engine valve

 Continue…
• ,

Airbagconsisters drive shaft. Aluminium- to-copper

high torque axial shaft

Piston rods track rollers turbo charger rotors

Drill bits, taps, and reamers
Macrograph of the fracture surface
of tensile test specimen

Fracture –Base metal

Weld Fracture –Weld metal
 FRICTION STIR WELDING
• Invented by W.M.Thomas – Dec’91 (TWI, UK)
• Ist Commercial application – Welding panels
for fast ferries in Norway – 1997
• Solid phase welding for Long Butt & Lap
joints with very little post weld distortion
• Simple to operate
• Very cost effective machine tool technique
offering many advantages
 PRINCIPLE OF FSW
 BASED ON FRICTION HEATING AT FAYING SURFACES OF TWO
PIECES TO BE JOINED.
 BY MEANS OF A NON-CONSUMABLE ROTATING TOOLS,
RESULTS IN A JOINT CREATED BY INTERFACE DIFORMATION,
HEAT & SOLID STATE DIFFUSION

 TOOL - CYLINDERICAL WITH A PROFILED PIN – HARD AND

WEAR RESISTANT RELATIVE TO MATERIAL BEING WELDED.

 PIN – 1/3 DIA. OF CYLINDEICAL TOOL

 LENGTH – SLIGHTLY LESS THAN THICKNESS OF WORK PIECE

• Rotating tool develops Frictional Heating,
causing Material to plasticize & flow from
the front of tool to back where it cools &
consolidates to produce high integrity solid
phase weld
• Fine grained, hot worked condition
with no entrapped oxides or gas
porosity
• Max temp created = <0.8Tm
• A pin rotating at 300-400 rpm is plunged in to the
material.
• Material is heated by friction.
• Heated material reaches plasticizing
temperature(~800F for aluminium).
• Plasticized material is slung to the back of the
pin.
• The material then cools with a finer grain
structure than the parent material.
 Process variables
• Rotation speed (180 to 300rpm)

• Travel speed 3.5 to 5 inches per minute

(8.89 to 12.7 centimeters per minute)

• pressure(5,000 to 10,000 pounds/sq inch)

 Tool

• Each tool has a shoulder whose rotation

against the substrate generates most of
the heat required for welding. The pin on
the tool is plunged into the substrate and
helps stir the metal in the solid state.
 Microstructure Classification:
A: Un affected zone.
B: HAZ.
C: Thermo mechanically affected zone.
D: Weld nugget.
Experimental work on Cryorolled AA2219
alloy Friction stir welding using Threaded
cylindrical tool pin

Impact sample
Cryorolled sample

Tensile sample Cylindrical Treaded tool pin

 Cryorolled Material AA2219-T87
Cryorolling
CR is carried out in heavy duty rolling mill with 45kW power, 36:1
power reduction and 390mm CD (center distance between the
rollers). Finally, a thickness 12.2mm was achieved in 32 different
passes with roller speed at 8 RPM. For each pass, an average of
nearly 3% reduction was made to avoid adiabatic heating during
rolling. Initially, the base material samples were immersed in liquid
nitrogen for 30 min and subsequently rolling was done. The rolled
plates were again kept in the liquid nitrogen medium for 5 min for
next reduction.
Mechanical properties of cryorolled material
Hardness Ultimate Yield Elongation at Impact
HV Tensile Strength Break (%) Strength
Strength (MPa) (Charpy) (J)
(MPa)

169 463.93 379.6 10 6

 Microstructure

Base AA2219 plate cryorolled AA2219 plate

The microstructure of CR plate perpendicular to the rolling direction

exhibited equiaxed grain morphology with elongated elliptical grains, partially
coarse and dark colored intermetallic particles. The line intercept method was
used to measure the grain size. The grain sizes in the base material were from
55 μm to 70 μm and in CR material from 25μm to 35μm.
.
Experimental work on Cryorolled AA2219 alloy
Friction stir welding using Different Tool pin Profile

Tool pin profile, a. Cylindrical, b. Threaded cylindrical, c. Square, d. Hexagonal

Optimized process parameter for Friction Stir Welding.
Tool rotational Tool travel Tool tilt angle Tool plunge Tool plunge
speed (rpm) speed (deg) depth(mm) speed (rpm)
(mm/min)

1000 25 3 5.7 1500

Typical cross section of weld nugget
cross section

Fusion weld (2 pass)                       FS weld (single pass)

 Mechanical properties of the Friction Stir Welded
joint with different tool pin profile

Tool Pin Profile Yield Ultimate Elongation( Impact

Strength Tensile %) Strength (J)
(Mpa) Strength
(Mpa)

Cryorolled material 27
339.6 463.93 10
Cylindrical Pin Tool-
FSW joint 192 263 10.8 13

Threaded Cylindrical
Pin Tool- FSW joint 232 275 11.8 15

Square Pin Tool-

FSW joint 237 281 11.3 20

Hexagonal Pin Tool-

293 336.042 17.6 18.5
FSW joint
 Microstructure of the weld joints

(a) Advancing side TMAZ (b) Weld Nugget (c) Retreating side TMAZ
Fig. 5 (a-c). Microstructure of cylindrical tool pin FSW joint

(a) Advancing side TMAZ (b) Weld Nugget (c) Retreating side TMAZ
Fig. 6 (a-c). Microstructure of threaded cylindrical tool pin FSW joint
(a) Advancing side TMAZ (b) Weld Nugget (c) Retreating side TMAZ
Fig. 7 (a-c). Microstructure of square tool pin FSW joint

(a) Advancing side TMAZ (b) Weld Nugget (c) Retreating side TMAZ
Fig. 8 (a-c). Microstructure of hexagonal tool pin FSW joint
• where the grain boundaries are darkly etched and the primary
strengthening precipitates are the metastable θ phase.
• The nugget region has experienced high temperatures and extensive
plastic deformation and is characterized by dynamically recrystallized
grains. The deformation extent of the plastic material and the flow of the
material affect the microstructure and the properties of the nugget.
• The pin geometry affects the weld nugget microstructure significantly.
Specifically the weld made with hexagon tool profile shows very fine grain
distribution compared to other tool profiles, Very fine grains are formed in
nugget zone of welds made with hexagon tool due to dynamic
recrystallization compared to weld nugget made with other tools.
Therefore, the shape of the weld nugget zone is only dependent on the
shape and the geometry of welding tool.
• The second phase particles θ (CuAl2) in all tool profiles are more uniform
and very small in the nugget zone made with hexagonal tool profile. The
more the number of flats in tool are, the more the heat generates which
may cause more degree of deformation than other tools.
Fractograph of different tool pin profile FSW
joints

Fig. (a-f). SEM fractograph images,

a. Base AA2219, b. Cryorolled material c. Cylindrical pin FSW joint, d. Threaded
cylindrical pin FSW joint,
 e. Square pin FSW joint, f. Hexagonal pin tool FSW joint.
• The fine dimple structure was obtained from the cryorolling was shown
in Fig. b from the base material.
• The hexagonal tool pin profile joint exhibits the very fine dimple
structure and coalescence which were evident to the very fine
microstructure of the material in the weld zone area than the other
cylindrical, threaded cylindrical, square tool pin profiles.
 Hardness value of the weld joints

The hardness values in the weld nugget region were recorded by Vicker hardness tester. The
hardness values of weld nugget zones of various profiles shown above. An examination of the
data clearly demonstrates that the hardness values are considerably affected by the geometry
of tool pin. This may be attributed to fine grain microstructure in hexagonal tool profile due to
sufficient heat and material flow available compared to that of weld made with other tool
profiles.
 Conclusions
• The pin geometrical profile influencing in the weld nugget
shape and as well as in the metallurgical properties of the
weld joint.
• The hexagonal tool pin profile exhibits better mechanical
and metallurgical properties than the other tool pin profile.
• The very fine grain structure range between 1-7μm were
obtained from the hexagonal tool pin weld joint, where as
the other joint grains were in the range of 2-10 μm.
• The hardness of the hexagonal tool exhibits reduced heat
affected zone due to the proper material flow at the stir
zone.
 Benefits
• Stronger and cleaner welds compared to fusion
welds.
• High ductility in weld.
• Energy efficient.
• Simple and clean.
• Increased tightness of join.
• Reduced welding distortion.
• No filler wire
• No gas shielding for welding aluminum
 Applications
- Aeronautical equipment.
- Marine applications.
- Aerospace.
- Military equipment.
- Automobile components.
 MERITS
1. NO POROSITY, ALLOY SEGREGATION & HOT CRACKING
AS IN FUSION WELDING
2. NO SPECIAL EDGE PREPARTION ONLY SQUARED –
SAVING MATERIAL,TIME AND MONEY
3. LOW DISTORTION LEVEL EVEN IN LONG WELDS
4. EQUIPMENT SIMPLE, RELATIVELY LOW RUNNING
COSTS.
5. ROUGHLY MACHINED SURFACE APPEARANCE – LESS
PRODUCTION COST IN FURTHER PROCESSING AND
FINISHING.
6. EXCELLENT MECHANICAL PROPERTIES.
7. WELL SUITABLE FOR AUOMATION & ADAPTABLE FOR
ROBOT USE.
8. NO SELECTION & STORAGE OF CONSUMABLES.
 LIMITATIONS
• Work pieces must be rigidly clamped
• Backing bar required (except where
self-reacting tool or directly opposed
tools are used)
• Keyhole at the end of each weld
• Cannot make joints which required
metal deposition (e.g. fillet welds)
 Arc Welding
• Large weld puddle
• Based on welding parameters and joint
configuration to determine amount of
penetration
• High Heat Input Process
• large amount of Distortion
• Filler metal addition aids in joint gap filling
and influences microstructure
 Laser Welding
Small weld puddle
• High welding speed
• Narrow weld with deep penetration
• Sensitive to weld joint fit-up and chemistry
of materials
• Laser energy is used to melt wire with
addition of filler metal
Arc welding
the arc is maintained by thermionic emission from the
sheet. When welding speed is high, heating becomes
insufficient, and the arc becomes unstable
Hybrid welding
• the electron density in a keyhole formed by laser radiation reaches
1017 to 1020/cm3. Moreover, the surrounding area is in a molten
state, so that thermionic emission takes place very easily a stable
arc is maintained even when the welding speed is high.
Schematic of Hybrid Process
• When laser-MIG welding, additional material is
transported into the weld pool, the undercut is
filled with the wire from the MIG process and a
portion of laser energy is now saved.
• The laser energy saved can be used to
increase the penetration into the base material,
and the weld bead width is bigger than the
material thickness, which is required from the
numerical simulation.
• With the laser-MIG welding procedure it is
possible to weld aluminum, steels and stainless
steel up to 4 mm in material thickness.
• where the laser hybrid welding process can be
suitable in the automotive industry could be
power trains, axles and car bodies
 Advantages of hybrid welding
 relatively high welding speed compared to
conventional processes
 high penetration that can be achieved due to the
keyhole effect.
 Laser-MIG welding causes wider and deeper
beads
 a better gap bridge ability
 reduces the joint preparation efforts
 Also, higher welding speeds of hybrid welding
lead to less heat input.
 Resistance Spot Welding
• RSW uses the tips of two opposing solid cylindrical electrodes

• Pressure is applied to the lap joint until the current is turned

off in order to obtain a strong weld

Fig: (a) Sequence in the resistance spot welding

 Temperature Distribution

Temperature
distribution
at
various Electrode At the end of
location welding time After 20%
welding time
during
welding.
Workpiece

Electrode

Temperature