Paleontology

• Class Goals: Understand the Application of Paleontology,

Stratigraphy, and Tectonics to Earth History
• Apply Concepts Learned to Understand the Historical
Geology of Afghanistan
• Class Format: Lectures, Homework and Laboratory
Exercises
Textbooks: Wicander and Monroe, 2016, “Historical Geology” 8th Edition
Prothero, 2013, “Bringing Fossils to Life: An Introduction to Paleobiology” 3rd Edition
Benton and Harper, 2009, “Introduction to Paleobiology and the Fossil Record” 1st Edition
Benton, 2015, “Vertebrate Palaeontology” 4th Edition
Clarkson, 1998, “Invertebrate Palaeontology and Evolution” 4th Edition
Instructor: Len Stitt
Email: Lstitt@eaglerockmining.com
 Paleontology - Fossils
Taxonomy is the naming and grouping of organisms. In a
taxonomic classification, the species is the basic unit. We
arrange the categories of living things in a hierarchy that
expresses levels of kinship.
Organisms are grouped based on their similarities into taxonomic
groups or taxa.

Broad grouping Domain

Kingdom
Phylum (plural = phyla)
Class
Order
Family
Genus (plural = genera)
Narrow grouping Species (singular and plural)
 Paleontology - Fossils

The Biological Classification System

A system of binomial nomenclature (two names)
is used to name organisms.
The first of the two names is the genus and the
second name is the species.
Genus and species names are underlined or
italicized.
Genus is capitalized, but species is not.
 Paleontology - Fossils
What Is a Species?
A species is a group of organisms that have
structural, functional, and developmental
similarities, and that are able to interbreed and
produce fertile offspring.
The species is the fundamental unit of biological
classification.
Paleontology relies on physical traits of fossils
and the range in the appearance to identify
species.
 Paleontology - Fossils

The Classification of the Human Species

Domain: Eukarya
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Hominidae
Genus: Homo (Human)
Species: sapiens (Wise)
 Paleontology - Fossils

Domain – The Top Level of Classification

1. Domain Eukarya
2. Domain Bacteria
3. Domain Archaea

There are Six Kingdoms that make up the three Domains

 Paleontology - Fossils
At the Top Level (Domain) Organisms Are
Divided by the Type of Cells They Have
All organisms are composed of cells.
• Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus (or nuclei) and
organelles.
• Organisms with this type of cell are called
eukaryotes (Domain Eukarya).
• Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus or organelles.
• Organisms with this type of cell are called
prokaryotes (Domain Archaea and Domain
Bacteria).
 Paleontology - Fossils
Domain Archaea
Archaea are organisms with prokaryotic cells, but which
are very unusual and quite different from bacteria.
Archaea tend to live under extreme conditions of heat,
salinity, acidity.
• Earth’s earliest organisms had prokaryotic cells.
• The Archaea include methane‐producing bacteria.
• They also include bacteria that are capable of living
under extremely harsh conditions like those around
hydrothermal springs along mid‐oceanic ridges or
hot springs on land.
• Some Archaea also exist in damp soils and ocean
waters.
 Paleontology - Fossils
Domain Bacteria
Organisms with prokaryotic cells (cells without a
nucleus)
• Earth’s earliest organisms had prokaryotic cells.
• The Bacteria are prokaryotes that live in soil or water, or
inside larger organisms like us.
• They include cyanobacteria, blue‐green algae.
• Cyanobacteria release oxygen during photosynthesis.
• Cyanobacteria caused great evolutionary change in the
Earth’s early atmosphere that began with no oxygen.
• Bacteria all contain a compound called muramic acid in
their cell walls.
• The presence of muramic acid helps to distinguish
organisms in the domain Bacteria from those in the
domain Archaea.
 Paleontology - Fossils
Domain Eukarya
The Eukarya consist of single‐ or multi‐celled organisms having
nucleated cells and cell organelles.
There are four taxonomic kingdoms within the Eurkarya.
1. Animalia—animals: multi‐cellular heterotrophic organisms.
Heterotrophs cannot generate their own food and so must consume
other animals or plants.
2. Plantae—plants: multi‐cellular eukaryotes that typically live on land
and undergo embryonic development. They are autotrophs—they
generate their own food through photosynthesis.
3. Fungi—fungus: multi‐cellular eukaryotes, many of which are
decomposers (saprophytes) that absorb nutrients from dead
organisms or live as parasites on plants.
4. Protista—protists: mostly single‐celled, animal‐like organisms that
devour food for energy (heterotrophs), plant‐like photosynthesizers
(autotrophs), and decomposers (saprophytes).
 Paleontology - Fossils

Evolution of Life

In Paleontology and Biology, Evolution is the

“Great Unifying Theory" for understanding
the History of Life.
 Paleontology - Fossils

Evolution of Life

As a result of evolution, plants and animals living

today are different from their ancestors. They differ in
appearance, genetic characteristics, body chemistry,
and in the way they function.
These differences appear to be a response to changes
in the environment and competition for food.
The fossil record illustrates the changes in Earth's
organisms over time.
Paleontology - Fossils
The “Tree of Life”

Haeckel, 1879
In his “Evolution of Man.”
 Paleontology - Fossils

The Tree of Life: A More Modern View

 Paleontology - Fossils

Natural Selection
Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace were the first
scientists to assemble a large body of convincing
observational evidence in support of evolution.
They proposed a mechanism for evolution which
Darwin called Natural Selection.
 Paleontology - Fossils

Natural Selection
Main Points of Natural Selection
• Any given species produces more offspring than
can survive to maturity.
• Many variations exist among the offspring.
• Offspring must compete with one another for food
and habitat.
• Offspring with the most favorable characteristics
are more likely to survive (and thus reproduce).
• In this way, beneficial traits are passed on to the
next generation.
 Paleontology - Fossils

Darwin’s Evidence for Evolution

• Fossils provide direct evidence for changes in
life in rocks of different ages.
• Certain organs or structures are present in a
variety of species, but they are modified to
function differently (homologous structures).
• Modern organisms contain vestigial organs
that appear to have little or no use. These
structures had a useful function in ancestral
species.
• Animals that are very different, had similar-
looking embryos.
Paleontology - Fossils
Homologous Structures
Bones of the right forelimb from
several vertebrates reveal
similarity of structure.
h = humerus, r = radius, u = ulna, c
= carpal, m = metacarpal,
1–5 = digits. At the center is the
forelimb of the earliest four‐
legged land animal, an amphibian.
Limbs are scaled to similar size for
comparison. The color red is used
for the humerus, blue for the ulna,
and yellow for the radius.
 Paleontology - Fossils
Vestigial Organs

The pelvis and femur (upper leg bone) of a whale are vestigial organs. Vestigial
organs may remain even though animals evolve and adapt to different modes of
life. Selective pressure for eliminating such organs is commonly weak, so the
vestige remains for relatively long periods.
 Paleontology - Fossils
Similarity of Embryos

Embryos of different vertebrates. They all share primitive

features early in development, such as gills (red) and tails (blue).
 Paleontology - Fossils

Other Evidence for Evolution

• Genetics (DNA molecule).
• Biochemistry (Biochemistry of closely-related
organism is similar, but very different from more
distantly related organisms).
• Molecular biology (sequences of amino acids in
proteins).
EARTH
HISTORY:
THE LAST
4.6 BILLION
YEARS