Consolidationtheory 190310143555

14.
330 SOIL MECHANICS

Consolidation
FUNDAMENTALS OF CONSOLIDATION
 (Vertical Stress Increase)
CONSOLIDATION:
Volume change in saturated soils
SAND
caused by the expulsion of pore
water from loading.
Saturated Soils:
CLAY
 causes u to increase immediately
SAND
Sands: Pore pressure increase
dissipates rapidly due to high
DEPTH
permeability.
after Figure 7.1a. Das FGE (2005).
Clays: Pore Pressure dissipates
slowly due to low permeability.
Revised 03/2013 Slide 1 of 74
14.330 SOIL MECHANICS
Consolidation
 (Vertical Stress Increase) At Time of Initial Loading (t = 0)
SAND
CLAY
Variation in Total, Pore water, and Effective Stresses
in Clay Layer
Figure 7.1b. Das FGE (2005)
SAND Pore water takes initial change in

DEPTH vertical loading (  u) since
water is incompressible
Soil skeleton does not see initial

loading
Consolidation
 (Vertical Stress Increase) Between time t = 0 to t = ∞
SAND
CLAY
in Clay Layer
Figure 7.1c. Das FGE (2005)
SAND Pore water increase due to initial

DEPTH loading dissipates
Soil skeleton takes loading as
pore pressure decreases
Consolidation
 (Vertical Stress Increase) At time t = ∞
SAND
CLAY
in Clay Layer
Figure 7.1e. Das FGE (2005)
SAND Pore water increase due to initial

loading completely dissipated
DEPTH
(u = 0)
Soil skeleton has taken loading.
Effective stress increase now equals
vertical stress increase   '
Consolidation
 (Vertical Stress Increase) THE SPRING ANALOGY
SAND
CLAY
(a)
Initial (b) (c)
SAND Loading Dissipation Final
of Excess Loading
DEPTH Water
Water takes
load Pressure Water
dissipated
Water
Soil (i.e. dissipating Soil has load
spring) has
Revised 03/2013 Soil starts to Slide 5 of 74
no load
Consolidation
ONE DIMENSIONAL (1D) CONSOLIDATION TEST

D2435-11 Standard Test Methods for One-Dimensional Consolidation Properties of Soils
Using Incremental Loading
Consolidometer
Revised 03/2013 Figure 7.2. Das FGE (2005) Slide 6 of 74
Consolidation
1D CONSOLIDATION TEST EQUIPMENT
ShearTrac II DSS Equipment

(Courtesy of Geocomp Corporation)
Figure E-1 USACE EM1110-1-1904.

Consolidation
1D CONSOLIDATION TESTING
LOAD INCREMENT DATA
THREE STAGES
Stage I: Initial Compression

Primarily caused by preloading.
Stage II: Primary Consolidation

Excess pore water pressure
dissipation and corresponding
soil volume change.
Stage III: Secondary Consolidation

Occurs after excess pore
water pressure dissipation.
Due to plastic deformation/
readjustment of soil particles.
Revised 03/2013 Figure 7.4. Das FGE (2005). Slide 8 of 74
Consolidation
VOID RATIO-PRESSURE PLOTS
Figure 7.5. Das FGE (2005)
Vv H v A H v
Initial Void Ratio (e o): eo   
Revised 03/2013
Vs H s A H s Slide 9 of 74
Consolidation

@ End of Load 1
   1  1
H1
Change in Void
Ratio due to 1st e1 
Loading (e1): Hs
New Void Ratio
after 1st
e1  eo  e1
Loading:
Consolidation

@ End of Load 2
    2   2
Change in Void H 2
Ratio due to 2nd e1 
Loading (e2): Hs
H 2
New Void Ratio
after 2nd Loading: e2  e1 
Hs
Consolidation

Final e – log ´ plots consist of
results of numerous load & unload
increments
Two Definitions of Clays
based on Stress History:
Normally Consolidated (NC):
The present overburden pressure (a.k.a.
effective in-situ stress) is the most the soil
has ever seen.
Overconsolidated Clay (OC):

The present overburden pressure is less
than the soil has experienced in the past.
The maximum effective past pressure is
called the preconsolidation pressure (ć)
or Maximum Past Pressure (´vm)
Consolidation
DETERMINATION OF MAXIMUM PAST PRESSURE

(ć or ´vm)
Graphical Method
(Casagrande, 1936)
1. Visually identify point of minimum
radius of curvature on e-log ´
curve (i.e. Point a).
2. Draw horizontal line from Point a
(i.e. Line ab).
3. Draw Line ac tangent to Point a.
4. Draw Line ad bisecting Angle bac.
5. Project the straight line portion of
gh on e-log ´ curve to intersect
Line ad. This intersection (Point f)
is the maximum past pressure
(a.k.a. preconsolidation pressure).
Figure 7.8. Das FGE (2005).
Consolidation
OVERCONSOLIDAITON RATIO (OCR)

OCR 
 c
(´ or ´ )

c vm
Where:
ć (a.k.a. ´vm) = Preconsolidation
Pressure (a.k.a
Maximum Past
Pressure).
´ = Present Effective Vertical Stress
General Guidelines:
NC Soils: 1 ≤ OCR ≤ 2
OC Soils : OCR > 2
Possible Causes of OC Soils:
Preloading (thick sediments, glacial ice);
fluctuations of GWT, underdraining, light
Figure 7.8. Das FGE (2005). ice/snow loads, desiccation above GWT,
secondary compression.
Consolidation
EFFECTS OF SAMPLE DISTURBANCE

NC and OC soils of low to medium sensitivity will experience disturbance due to
remolding. This changes the consolidation characteristics of the 1D consolidation tests.
NC Clays - Figure 7.9. Das FGE (2005) OC Clays - Figure 7.10. Das FGE (2005)
Virgin Compression Curve – Consolidation Curve Insitu (i.e. w/o disturbance)

qu(undisturbed )
Sensitivity (St) St  qu(remolded )
Where qu= Unconfined CompressiveStrength
Consolidation

Reconstruction of Virgin Consolidation Curves (EM 1110-1-1904)
Figure 3-12. EM 1110-1-1904 Settlement Analysis.

Consolidation

Table 3-6. EM 1110-1-1904 Settlement Analysis.

Consolidation

Table 3-6. EM 1110-1-1904 Settlement Analysis.

Consolidation
SETTLEMENT FROM 1D PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION

At End of Primary Consolidation  =  ´
V  Vo V1  HA  (H  S p ) A  S p A
Where:
V = Volume, Vo = Initial Volume, V1 = Final Volume, Sp = PrimarySettlement
Consolidation

V  S p A  Vvo Vv1  Vv

Where:
Vvo = Initial Void Volume, Vv1 = Final VoidVolume
Vv  eVs
Where:
e = Change in Void Ratio
Vo AH
Vs  
Figure 7.11. Das FGE (2005). 1 eo 1 eo
Where:
e0 = Initial Void Ratio
Consolidation
SETTLEMENT FROM 1D PRIMARY CONSOLIDAITON

Therefore:
AH
V  S p A  eVs  e
1 eo
or
e
Sp  H
1 eo
Sp e
  v
H 1 eo
Where:
v = Vertical Strain
Consolidation

Virgin Consolidation NC Clay
Line
eo
Where:
Cc = Slope of Field Virgin
Consolidation Curve
Cs
VOID RATIO
or = Compression Index
Cr Cc
Cs (or Cr ) = Slope of Rebound
Curve
= Swell Index
´vm = Maximum Past Pressure
~0.4eo ó = Initial Vertical Effective
Stress
´v (Log Scale)
´vm = ó
Consolidation

Virgin Consolidation NC Clay
Line
eo Settlement (Sp) using Void Ratio
Cc H   o   
Sp  log 
VOID RATIO
Cs 1 e0   o 
or
Cc Where:
Cr
Sp = Settlement
H = Height of Soil Layer
ef
´vm = Final Vertical Effective
Stress
= o´ - Current Vertical
Effective Stress
~0.4eo
´ = Change in Vertical
Effective Stress
´v (Log Scale) ´ f´ = Final Vertical Effective
´vm Stress
´f
= ´ o ef = Final Void Ratio
Consolidation

Same Slope
as Cr OC Clay
eo
Virgin Where:
Consolidation
Lines Cc = Slope of Field Virgin
Consolidation Curve
Cs
VOID RATIO
or = Compression Index
Cr Cc
Cs (or Cr ) = Slope of
Rebound Curve
= Swell Index
´vm = Maximum Past
Pressure
~0.4eo
ó = Initial Vertical Effective
´v (Log Scale) Stress
ó ´vm
or
ć
Consolidation

Same Slope
as Cr OC Clay
eo Settlement (Sp) using Void Ratio
Cr H   C H      
VOID RATIO
Sp  log v m   c log o 
Cs
1 e0   o  1 e 0   o 
or
Cr Cc Where:
Sp = Settlement
ef H = Height of Soil Layer
´ = Change in Vertical
Effective Stress
o´ = Initial Vertical Effective
~0.4eo Stress
f´ = Final Vertical Effective
´v (Log Scale) ´ Stress
ó ´vm ´f ef = Final Void Ratio
or
Revised 03/2013 ć Slide 25 of 74
Consolidation

Compression Index (Cc) Estimates from Other Laboratory Tests
Soil Cc Equation Reference
Undisturbed Clays Cc  0.009(LL10)

Terzaghi & Peck (1967)
Disturbed Clays Cc  0.007(LL10)
Organic Soils, Peat Cc  0.0115Wn

Cc  1.15(eo 0.35)
Clays Cc  0.012Wn
EM 1110-1-1904
Cc  0.01(LL13)
Varved Clays Cc  (1 eo )  0.1 0.006(Wn  25)
Uniform Silts Cc  0.20

Consolidation


2.38

1o e 
Clays Cc  0.141G1.2
s   Rendon-Herrero (1983)
 Gs 
 LL 
Clays Cc  0.2343   Gs Nagaraj & Murty (1985)
 100 
Where:
Gs = Specific Gravity of Solids
LL = Liquid Limit (in %)
Wn = Natural Water Content
eo = Initial Void Ratio
Consolidation


2.38
 1o e 
1.2 
Clays Cc  0.141Gs  Rendon-Herrero (1983)
 Gs 
Cc  0.2343
LL 
Clays  Gs Nagaraj & Murty (1985)
100 

Consolidation
EXAMPLE: SETTLEMENT FROM VIRGIN

CONSOLIDATION CURVES
1.12
1.1
GIVEN:
1.08 OC CH layer
VOID RATIO (e)
1.06
o´ = 855 psf
1.04
vm´ = 1460 psf
1.02
´ = 1005 psf
1
eo = 1.1
0.98
Height of CH
0.96 Layer = 10 ft
500 600 700 800 900 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
1000
Vertical Effective Stress 'v (psf)
Revised 03/2013 Figure 1. Example of Virgin Consolidation Curves. Slide 29 of 74
Consolidation
EXAMPLE: SETTLEMENT FROM VIRGIN

CONSOLIDATION CURVES
1.12
eo e
1.1 1.1 Sp  H
Cs 1 eo
1.08 1.076 e  1.11.045  0.055
VOID RATIO (e)
1.06
ef Cc
eo  1.1
1.04
1.045
 0.055 
Sp  (10 ft) 
1.02
 11.1 
Sp  0.262ft
1
' 1
0.98
Sp  3.14in  3 in
4
0.96
500 600 700 800 900
'o 1000 'vm 'f2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

Revised 03/2013 Figure 1. Example of Virgin Consolidation Curves. Slide 30 of 74
Consolidation
EXAMPLE: SETTLEMENT FROM 1D TEST STRAIN RESULTS

TOTAL STRESS PORE PRESSURE EFFECTIVE STRESS
SC (u) (')
Q = P = 144 kips ()
 = 105 pcf
sat = 110 pcf
0 2000 0 2000 0 2000
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
B = 6 ft SQ
Depth from Existing Ground Surface (ft)

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
CL
sat = 105 pcf
15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15
SM
20 sat = 115 pcf 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
MH
sat = 115 pcf
25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25
0 2000 0 2000 0 2000
Consolidation

15
CL Layer
20 Sample from 12 ft
VERTICAL STRAIN (%)
25
30
35
40
45
50
200 400 600 800 2000 4000 6000
100 1000
Consolidation

TOTAL STRESS PORE PRESSURE EFFECTIVE STRESS
SC (u) (')
Q = P = 144 kips ()
 = 105 pcf
sat = 110 pcf
0 2000 0 2000 0 2000
0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
'o
B = 6 ft SQ 315 0 315 'f

A 525 0 525
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 2525 5
B 635 60 575
1455
C 980 250 730

CL Layer 1 1250
10 CL 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
sat = 105 pcf
1325 435 890
1185
D 1670 625 1045

15 CL Layer 2 15 15 15 15 15 15 1240 15
E 2015 810 1205

1345
SM
20 sat = 115 pcf 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
F 2360 1000 1360
MH
sat = 115 pcf
G 2820 1250 1570
25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25
0 2000 0 2000 0 2000
Consolidation

15
CL Layer
20 Sample from 12 ft
CL Layer 1
VERTICAL STRAIN (%)
25
S p 1  H 1v1
30
S p 1  (6 ft)(0.065)
v1 = 6.5% = 0.065
S p 1  0.39 ft 35
S p 1  4.7in 40
45
50
200 400 600 800 'f1 2000
100 'o1 1000
Consolidation

15
CL Layer 2
S p2  H 2 v2 20
CL Layer
Sample from 12 ft
Sp2 (6 ft)(0.024) VERTICAL STRAIN (%)

25
Sp2 0.14 ft
30
Sp21.7in
35
v2 = 2.4% = 0.024
Total Settlement
40
SPtotal  Sp1  Sp 2
SPtotal  6.4in 45
'o2
SPtotal  6 1 in 50
200 400 600 800 'f2 2000
100 1000
2
Consolidation
SETTLEMENT FROM SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION
e
C 
log t2  log t1
Where:
C = Secondary Compression
Index
e = Change in Void Ratio
t = Time
Results of 1D Consolidation Test @

One Load Increment

Consolidation
SETTLEMENT FROM SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION

 t2 
S s  C H log 
 t1 
C
C 
1 e p
Where:
H = Height of Soil Layer
ep = Void Ratio @ End
of Primary Consolidation
t = Time
Results of 1D Consolidation Test @

One Load Increment

Consolidation
TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION

Theory of 1D Consolidation
(Terzaghi, 1925)
Assumptions:
1. The clay-water system is homogenous.
2. Saturation is complete (S = 100%).
3. Compressibility of water is negligible.
4. Compressibility of soil grains is
negligible (but soil particles rearrange).
5. Flow of water is in one direction only.
6. Darcy’s Law is Valid.
Clay Layer Undergoing
Consolidation
Figure 7.17a. Das FGE (2005).
Consolidation

Consolidation Flow of Water @ Point A
Figure 7.17a. Das FGE (2005). Figure 7.17b. Das FGE (2005).

Consolidation

(Rate of Water Outflow) –
(Rate of Water Inflow) =
(Rate of Volume Changes)

Mathematical Equation:
 v  v z  V
 z dz  dxdy v dxdy 
z
z
  dt
or
vz V
dxdydz 
z dt
Flow of Water @ Point A Where:
Figure 7.17b. Das FGE (2005).
V = Volume of Soil Element
vz = Velocity of flow in z direction
Consolidation

v z V
dxdydz 
z t
Using Darcy’s Law (v = ki)
h k u
v z  ki  k 
z  w z
Where u = excess pore pressure. From algebra:
k 2u 1 V
 
 w z 2 dxdydz t
Rate of change in V = Rate of Change in Vv
V Vv Vs  eVs  Vs e V
    Vs e s
t t t t t t
Flow of Water @ Point A Where:

Vs = Volume of Solids
Revised 03/2013
vv = Volume of Voids Slide 41 of 74
Consolidation

From Previous Slide
V Vv Vs  eVs  Vs e V

    Vs e s
t t t t t t
Assuming soil solids are incompressible
Vs
0
t
and
V dxdydz
Vs  
1e o 1 eo
eo = Initial Void Ratio. Substituting:
V dxdydz e

t 1 eo t
Flow of Water @ Point A Combining equations:
k  2u 1 e
 
 w z 2 1 eo t
Consolidation

From Previous Slide k  2u 1 e
 
 w z 2 1  eo t
The change in void ratio is caused by
the increase in effective stress.
Assuming linear relationship between
the two:
e  av   avu
av = Coefficient of Compressibility.
Can be considered constant over
narrow pressure increases.
Combining equations:
 k 2u av u u
    mv
 w z 2 1 eo t t
Flow of Water @ Point A mv = Coefficient of Volume
Figure 7.17b. Das FGE (2005). Compressibility.
av
mv 
Revised 03/2013
1 e o Slide 43 of 74
Consolidation

From Previous Slide
 k 2u a v u u
    mv
 w z 2 1 eo t t
av = Coefficient of Compressibility.
mv = Coefficient of Volume Compressibility.
av
mv 
1 eo
Rearranging Equations:
u 2u
 cv
t z 2
Flow of Water @ Point A Where cv = Coefficient of Consolidation.
k
cv 
 w mv 
Consolidation

Basic Differential Equation of 1D
Consolidation Theory
u 2u
 cv
t z2
Can be solved with the following
boundary conditions:
z  0,u  0
z  2H dr ,u  0
t  0, u u0
The solution yields
m 
 Mz  M 2Tv

2u o
Clay Layer Undergoing u  sin e
Consolidation
Figure 7.17a. Das FGE (2005). m0 M  Hdr 
Consolidation

From Previous Slide
m 
 Mz  M 2Tv

2u o
u  sin e
m0 M  H dr 
Where:
M
 2m 1
2
uo  Initial excess pore water pressure
cv t
Tv  2
 TIME FACTOR
H dr

Consolidation

Consolidation
TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION Because consolidation progress by dissipation of

excess pore pressure, the degree of consolidation
(Uz) at a distance z at any time t is:
uo  uz u
Uz   1 z
uo uo

Consolidation

Consolidation

Consolidation
TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION Average degree of consolidation (U) for the entire
depth of the clay layer at any time t is:
 1  2H dr

u z dz
U  t  1 
S 2H dr  0
Sp uo
Where:
U  Average degree of Consolidation
St  Settlement of layer at time t
S p  Settlement of Layer from Primary Consolidation
Substituting U for u
m
U 1  M
2 M 2Tv
2
e
m0
U can be approximated by the
Clay Layer Undergoing following relationships:
Consolidation   U % 2
Figure 7.17a. Das FGE (2005). For U  0% to 60%,Tv   
4  100 
Revised 03/2013 For U  60%,Tv  1.781 0.933log(100 U %) Slide 49 of 74
Consolidation
TIME RATE OF
CONSOLIDATION
Variation of Tv with U
Table 7.1 Das PGE (2006).

Consolidation

Difference between Average Degree of Consolidation and Midplane
Degree of Consolidation

Consolidation
COEFFICIENT OF CONSOLIDATION (cv)

• Generally decreases as Liquid Limit (LL) increases.
• Determined from 1D Consolidation Test Lab per Load Increment.
Logarithm of Time Method Square Root of Time Method

(Casagrande and Fadum, 1940) (Taylor, 1942)
Figure 7.19 Das FGE (2006). Figure 7.20 Das FGE (2006).
Consolidation

Logarithm of Time Method
1. Extend the straight line portion of primary
and secondary consolidations to interest at
Point A. Point A represents d100
(Deformation at 100% primary
consolidation).
2. The initial curved portion of the deformation
plot versus log t is approximated to be a
parabola on a natural scale. Select times t1
and t2 on the curved portion such that t2 =
4t1. Let the difference of the specimen
deformation between (t2 – t1) be equal to x.
3. Draw a line horizontal to DE such that the
vertical distance BD is equal to x. The
Figure 7.19. Das FGE (2006). deformation corresponding to the line DE is
d0 (Deformation at 0% primary
consolidation).
Consolidation

Logarithm of Time Method
4. The ordinate of Point F on the consolidation
curve represents the deformation at 50%
primary consolidation (d50).
5. For 50% average degree of consolidation

(U = 50%), Tv = 0.197 (see Table 7.1, Das
FGE 2006).
cvt50
T50  0.197  2
H dr
or
2
cv 
0.197H
dr
t50
Where:
Figure 7.19. Das FGE (2006). Hdr = Average longest drain path
during consolidation.
Consolidation

Square Root of Time Method
1. Draw a line AB trough the early portion
of the curve.
2. Draw a line AC such that OC = 1.15OB.
The time value for Point D (i.e. the
intersection of line AC and the data) is
the square root of time for t90 (i.e. the
time to 90% primary consolidation).
3. For 90% consolidation, Tv = 0.848 (see
Table 7.1, Das FGE 2006).
cvt90
T90  0.848  2
H dr
or
2
cv  
0.848H
dr
Revised 03/2013
t90 Slide 55 of 74
Consolidation

Example
REQUIRED: Determine the following:
SP FILL ( = 115 pcf) 3ft
5ft
a. The change in pore pressure in the CL layer

4ft
SC ( = 115 pcf) immediately after the application of the 3 ft
of SP Fill.
CL ( = 115 pcf) 6ft b. The degree of consolidation in the middle of

the clay layer when the excess pore
pressure (ue) is 170 psf.
c. How high would the water in a piezometer
SM ( = 115 pcf)
located in the middle of the layer rise above
the GWT when ue = 170 psf?
d. If cv = 0.000004 ft²/sec, how long would it
GIVEN: Soil Profile (NTS). take to get to 25% average degree of
2 way drainage. consolidation? To U = 50%? To U = 99%?
Consolidation
PRECOMPRESSION – GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

PRECOMPRESSION: Loading an area prior to placement of the planned structural
loading to limit post-construction settlement. Also known as Surcharging.
Settlement caused by structural loading (Sp):
Cc H   o   
Sp  log 
1 e0   o 
Settlement caused by structural loading and surcharging (S´p or Sp+f):
Sp  S p f 
Cc H
log

  o    f 


1 e0  o 
Where:
f = Change in vertical stress due to Fill added.
Consolidation
PRECOMPRESSION – GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

Where:
p) = Change in vertical stress due to
structural load.
f) = Change in vertical stress due to
Fill added.
Where:
Sp = Settlement due to structural load.
Figure 7.26. Das FGE (2006). Sp+f = Settlement due to structural load
and Fill.
Consolidation
PRECOMPRESSION – PLANNING
Mathematical Equations
S p Definition of average Degree of Consolidation U

U
S p
  o   ( p) 
log  
  o 
U Substitution
  o    (p)   ( f ) 
log  
  o 
  (p) 
log1 
 
U  o 
  (p)   ( f )  Re-arranging (Eqn 7.56 Das FGE 2006)
log1 1  
  
o 
 
( p) 
Place in graphical form
for design use
(Figure 7.27 Das FGE 2006)
Consolidation
PRECOMPRESSION –
PLANNING
Where:
f) = Change in vertical stress
due to Fill added.
p) = Change in vertical stress
due to Structural Loading.
ó = Initial vertical effective
stress.

Consolidation
PRECOMPRESSION –
PLANNING
STEPS:
1. Calculate primary consolidation
settlement from planned loading (Sp).
2. Calculate primary consolidation
settlement from planned loading plus
surcharge (Sp+f ).
3. Calculate average degree of
consolidation U. Note U = Sp/Sp+f.
Can also use Figure 7.27 or
Eqn 7.56 (Das FGE 2006).
1. Find Tv from calculated U. To find
time to when surcharge loading
should be removed (i.e. t2):
2
Tv H dr
t2 
Revised 03/2013
cv Figure 7.27. Das FGE (2006).
Slide 61 of 74
Consolidation

Difference between Average Degree of Consolidation and Midplane
Degree of Consolidation
Removal of Surcharge
may still cause net
settlement
(swelling near drainage
layers, settlement @
middle)
Conservative Approach:
Assume U is the midplane
degree of consolidation.

Consolidation
Midplane Degree
of Consolidation

Consolidation
SURCHARGING EXAMPLE
SP FILL ( = 115 pcf) 3ft
5ft
SC ( = 115 pcf)
4ft REQUIRED: Determine the following:
a. If cv = 0.000004 ft²/sec, how long would it
take to get to 99% average degree of
CL ( = 115 pcf) 6ft
consolidation?
b. If a surcharge of 4 ft of fill was placed in
addition to the 3 ft of fill planned, when
SM ( = 115 pcf) would you be able to remove the
surcharge? Use the same value for cv
given in a.
GIVEN: Soil Profile (NTS).

2 way drainage.

Consolidation
GROUND MODIFICATION FOR CONSOLIDATION

SAND DRAINS
rw = Sand Drain Radius
de = Effective Diameter
Plan View – Triangular Spacing

Figure 10.38. Das PGE (2006)
Reduction Drainage Path =

Section View Reduction in Drainage Time
Figure 10.38. Das PGE (2006).
Consolidation

STEPS 1
SAND DRAINS
4
2
3
5
1. Place auger at drain location.

2. Screw auger to selected depth.
3. Rotate auger at selected depth to remove soil.
4. Inject sand while auger is extracted.
5. Complete sand drain to working platform level.
Sand Drain Installation: Auger Method Figure 10.39. Das PGE (2006).
(Kirmani, 2004)
Consolidation

PREFABRICATED VERTICAL DRAINS (PVD’S) (A.K.A. WICK DRAINS)
Conceptual Concept
Courtesy of www.americanwick.com
Courtesy of
www.americandrainagesystems.com

Consolidation

PREFABRICATED VERTICAL DRAINS (PVD’S) (A.K.A. WICK DRAINS)
Courtesy of www.americandrainagesystems.com
Courtesy of www.nilex.com
Revised 03/2013 Courtesy of www.nilex.com Slide 68 of 74

Consolidation

RADIAL CONSOLIDATION
Ur = Average Degree of Radial Consolidation
  8Tr 
U r  1 exp   Barron (1948)
 m 
 n2  3n2 1
m  2  ln(n) 
 n 1  4n 2
 
d de = Effective Diameter
n e rw = Sand Drain Radius
Plan View – Sand Drain
2rw Triangular Spacing
cvr t
Tr  2 cvr = Coefficient of Radial Consolidation
Tr = Time Factor for Radial Consolidation
de
kh
cvr  kh= Coefficient of Horizontal Permeability
 e 
  (1  e )  w
Tr = Time Factor for Radial Consolidation
eo = Initial Void Ratio
 o 
Consolidation
TIME RATE OF RADIAL CONSOLIDATION

Variation of Tr with U - Table 7.3 Das PGE (2006).

Consolidation
TIME RATE OF RADIAL CONSOLIDATION

Variation of Tr with U - Table 7.3 Das PGE (2006).

Consolidation

AVERAGE DEGREE OF CONSOLIDATION DUE TO VERTICAL & RADIAL DRAINAGE
Sand U v,r  1 (1U r )(1U v )

Where:
Drainage Uv,r = Average Degree of Consolidation
Drain
due to Vertical & Radial Drainage

Clay
Uv = Average Degree of Consolidation
due to Vertical Drainage
Ur = Average Degree of Consolidation

Sand due to Radial Drainage
Vertical and Radial Drainage

Courtesy of www.nhi.fhwa.dot.gov

Consolidation
CONSOLIDATION MONITORING
SETTLEMENT PLATES
Settlement Rod
(Steel) Rod Protection
(Typically PVC Pipe)
Fill Layer Settlement

Plate Base
(Plywood or Steel)
Insitu Soil Layer

to be Monitored
General Concept Standard Plan Detail

Revised 03/2013 (Courtesy of Iowa DOT) Slide 73 of 74
Consolidation
SURCHARGING INSTRUMENTATION EXAMPLE

Surcharge
Inclinometers
Settlement Platforms Drainage
Blanket
Permanent Fill
Soft Clay
Vertical
Drain
Firm Soil
Piezometers Not to Scale

Revised 03/2013 Courtesy of www.nhi.fhwa.dot.gov Slide 74 of 74

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14.

330 SOIL MECHANICS

SAND Pore water takes initial change in

Soil skeleton does not see initial

SAND Pore water increase due to initial

SAND Pore water increase due to initial

ONE DIMENSIONAL (1D) CONSOLIDATION TEST

1D CONSOLIDATION TEST EQUIPMENT

ShearTrac II DSS Equipment

Figure E-1 USACE EM1110-1-1904.

Stage I: Initial Compression

Stage II: Primary Consolidation

Stage III: Secondary Consolidation

VOID RATIO-PRESSURE PLOTS

Figure 7.5. Das FGE (2005)

VOID RATIO-PRESSURE PLOTS

Figure 7.5. Das FGE (2005)

VOID RATIO-PRESSURE PLOTS

Figure 7.5. Das FGE (2005)

VOID RATIO-PRESSURE PLOTS

Overconsolidated Clay (OC):

DETERMINATION OF MAXIMUM PAST PRESSURE

OVERCONSOLIDAITON RATIO (OCR)

EFFECTS OF SAMPLE DISTURBANCE

Virgin Compression Curve – Consolidation Curve Insitu (i.e. w/o disturbance)

EFFECTS OF SAMPLE DISTURBANCE

Figure 3-12. EM 1110-1-1904 Settlement Analysis.

Revised 03/2013 Slide 16 of 74

EFFECTS OF SAMPLE DISTURBANCE

Revised 03/2013 Slide 17 of 74

EFFECTS OF SAMPLE DISTURBANCE

Revised 03/2013 Slide 18 of 74

SETTLEMENT FROM 1D PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION

Figure 7.11. Das FGE (2005)

SETTLEMENT FROM 1D PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION

V  S p A  Vvo Vv1  Vv

SETTLEMENT FROM 1D PRIMARY CONSOLIDAITON

SETTLEMENT FROM 1D PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION

SETTLEMENT FROM 1D PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION

SETTLEMENT FROM 1D PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION

SETTLEMENT FROM 1D PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION

SETTLEMENT FROM 1D PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION

Soil Cc Equation Reference

Undisturbed Clays Cc  0.009(LL10)

Organic Soils, Peat Cc  0.0115Wn

Uniform Silts Cc  0.20

Revised 03/2013 Slide 26 of 74

SETTLEMENT FROM 1D PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION

Soil Cc Equation Reference

SETTLEMENT FROM 1D PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION

Soil Cc Equation Reference

Revised 03/2013 Slide 28 of 74

EXAMPLE: SETTLEMENT FROM VIRGIN

EXAMPLE: SETTLEMENT FROM VIRGIN

Vertical Effective Stress 'v (psf)

EXAMPLE: SETTLEMENT FROM 1D TEST STRAIN RESULTS

Depth from Existing Ground Surface (ft)

EXAMPLE: SETTLEMENT FROM 1D TEST STRAIN RESULTS

EXAMPLE: SETTLEMENT FROM 1D TEST STRAIN RESULTS

Depth from Existing Ground Surface (ft)

C 980 250 730

D 1670 625 1045

E 2015 810 1205