PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF

LEARNING AND MOTIVATION

PROF. FORTUNATO G. VENDIVEL JR., PH. D.

FORMER DEAN (2006-2011)
OFFICE OF STUDENT AFFAIRS & STUDENT SERVICES
PHILIPPINE NORMAL UNIVERSITY - MANILA
FORMER CONCURRENT DEAN (2003-2005)
SCHOOL OF LIBERAL ARTS & EDUCATION AND
OFFICE OF STUDENT AFFAIRS/SERVICES
ST. JUDE COLLEGE - MANILA
(LECTURER/REVIEWER)
 WHAT TO EXPECT

PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
Area: Facilitating Learning
Focus: Principles and Theories of Learning and
Motivation
LET Competencies:
1. Analyze the cognitive, meta-cognitive, motivational and
socio-cultural factors that affect learning
2. Organize a learning environment that promotes fairness
regardless of culture, family background and gender,
responsive to learner’s needs and difficulties.
LEARNING
involves the acquisition of new elements of knowledge,
skills, beliefs and specific behavior, may mean one or more
of all these things:
 Learning is a process by which behavior is either modified
or wholly changed through experience, practice or
training.
 the act of gaining knowledge (to learn something), the
knowledge gained by virtue of that act (that which is
known) the process of gaining knowledge (learning how).
Banner and Cannon, 1997
 It is an ongoing process of continued adaptation to our
environment, assimilation of new information and
accommodation of new input to fit prior knowledge.
LEARNING THEORIES

They are sets of conjectures and hypotheses that explain the

process of learning or how learning takes place.

 1. BEHAVIORAL/LEARNING THEORY
 Operates on the principle of S-R
 Prefers to concentrate on actual behavior
 Conclusions are based on observations of external
manifestations of Learning
1.1 Classical Conditioning – Ivan Pavlov
 Classical means “in an established manner.”
 Believes that an individual learns when a previously neutral
stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus until the
neutral stimulus evokes a conditioned response.
 PHASE I: BEFORE CONDITIONING HAS OCCURRED

UCR
(SALIVATION)

NEUTRAL STIMULUS
ORIENTING RESPONSE
(BUZZER)

PHASE II: THE PHASE OF CONDITIONING

NEUTRAL UCR
STIMULUS UC (SALIVATION)
(BUZZER) (MP)

PHASE III: AFTER CONDITIONING HAS OCCURRED

UCS CR
(BUZZER) (SALIVATION)
•Unconditioned Stimulus – automatically produces an
emotional or psychological response.

•Unconditioned Response – naturally occurring emotional or

physiological response.

•Neutral Stimulus – a stimulus that does not elicit a response.

•Conditioned Stimulus – evokes an emotional or physiological

response after an animal has been conditioned.

•Conditioned Response – a learned response to a previously

neutral condition.
 1. Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
Includes the following:
 Stimulus Generalization – A process by which the
conditioned response transfers to other stimuli that are
similar to the original conditioned stimulus.
 Discrimination – a process by which one learns not to
respond to similar stimuli in an identical manner because
of previous experiences.
 Extinction- the process by which a conditioned response
is lost.
2. Edward Thorndike’s Connectionism
 Puts more emphasis on the response of the organism, not
limiting himself to the association between the stimulus
and the response.
Thorndike’s Major Laws of Learning
 Law of Effect - when an organism’s response is
accompanied or followed by a satisfactory state, the
strength of the connection is increased. If an annoying
state accompanies or follows the response, the strength
of the connection is decreased. Rewards, successes, or
positive reinforcemenst further learning, while
punishment, failure, or negative experiences hinder it.

3. Burrhus Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

 Stresses the consequence of behavior in order to learn.
 Proved that reinforcement is a powerful tool in shaping
and controlling behavior inside and outside the
classroom.
•Operant Conditioning- using pleasant and unpleasant
consequences to control the occurrence of behaviour.

Reinforcer – any consequence that strengthens a behavior

•Primary Reinforcer – related to basic needs.
•Secondary Reinforcer – value of something is acquired when
associated with a primary reinforcer.

•Positive Reinforcer – consequence given to strengthen a

behavior.
•Negative Reinforcer – release from an unpleasant situation to
strengthen a behavior.
Classifies Reinforcements into:
 Verbal - praise, encouragement
 Physical - touches, pats, hugs
 Non-Verbal - smiles, winks, warm looks
 Activity - being allowed to play games, to listen to music,
etc.
 Token - points, chips, stars
 Consumable - cookies, soda, chocolates

4. Albert Bandura’s Social/Observational Learning Theory

States that learning takes place when one person
observes and then imitates the behavior of others
•Known for his “Bobo doll” experiment
•People learn through observation, simulation, modelling
which means watching (observing), another called a model
and later imitating the model’s behaviour.
•Concentrates on the power of example

Models are classified as:

• Real life- exemplified by teachers, parents and significant
others
• Symbolic- presented through oral/ written symbols
• Representational- presented through audio-visual
measures
 Stresses the importance of models because the
observer-learner may:
1. acquire new responses
2. strengthen or weaken every existing response
3. cause the reappearance of responses that have
apparently been forgotten

4. Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Four Phases:
 Attention – Mere exposure does not ensure acquisition
of behaviour. Observer must attend to and recognize
the distinctive features of the model’s response.
B. Cognitive Theories and Metacognition
 Main focus is on memory
 Prefer to concentrate on analyzing cognitive processes
 Believe in non-observable behaviors

1. David Ausubel’s Meaningful Reception Theory

• Meaningful learning occurs when new experiences
are related to what a learner already knows.

May occur through:

• Reception
• Rote learning
• Discovery learning
 TWO DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING PROCESSES:

The first dimension relates to the two ways The second dimension relates to two ways by
by which knowledge to be learned is made which the learner incorporate new
available to the learner. information into his existing cognitive
structure.
1. Meaningful Reception Learning 1. Meaningful Discovery Learning

2. Rote Reception Learning 2. Rote Discovery Learning

David Ausubel’s Meaningful Reception Learning Theory

 Concerned with how students learn large amounts of

meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations in
a school setting.
 Meaningful learning results when information is acquired
by linking the new information in the learner’s own
cognitive structure.
 Meaningful learning occurs when new experiences are
related to what a learner already knows.
Meaningful Reception Learning
 A major instructional mechanism proposed by Ausubel is
the use of advance organizers (different from overviews
and summaries which simply emphasize key ideas) which
help to link new learning material with existing related
ideas

Difference between Reception and Discovery Learning

 Reception Learning – is concerned about presenting the
ideas to be learned by the learner in a well-organized
fashion, while
 Discovery Learning – focuses on having the learner
identify the key ideas and store this information on his
own.
2. Jerome Bruner’s Discovery Learning Theory or Inquiry
Method/ Theory of Instruction

•Posits that learning is more meaningful to learners when

they have the opportunity to discover on their own the
relationships among the concepts or to actively search for a
solution to a problem.

•An approach to instruction through which students interact

with their environment by exploring and manipulating
objects, wrestling with questions and controversies or
performing experiments. The idea is that students are more
likely to remember concepts they discover on their own.

•Calls his view of learning “instrumental conceptualism”

 Implies learning by discovering the solution
 Contends that students should be given a wide variety of
examples of certain facts and information and encourage
them to discover the answer or the underlying rules or
principles.
 An approach to instruction through which students
interact with their environment by exploring and
manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and
controversies or by performing experiments. The idea is
that students are more likely to remember concepts they
discover on their own.
 Emphasizes that students should learn to recognize a
problem, characterize what a solution would be like,
search for relevant information, develop a solution
strategy, and execute the chosen strategy.
 Believes that “you can’t teach people everything they
need to know.” The best thing to do is to position them
where they can find what they need to know when they
need to know it.
3. Wolfgang Kohler’s Insight Learning/ Problem –Solving Theory
Insight
•The capacity to discern the true nature of situation
•The imaginative power to see into and understand immediately
•Gaining insight is a gradual process of exploring, analysing, and
structuring perception until a solution is arrived at.

4. Richard Atkinson’s and Richard Shiffrin’s Information

Processing Theory
The individual learns when the human mind takes in information
(encoding), performs operation in it, stores the information (storage),
and retrieves it when needed (retrieval).

Memory- the ability to store information so that it can be used at a

later time.
Short-Term Memory (STM)
 Consists of what is in our consciousness at any given time.
Constitutes the raw material needed for thinking which is
referred to as “working memory.”
 New information is retained only for about 20 seconds or so.
Limited not only in the length of time it can hold information
but also in its capacity – 5 to 9 new items of information.
 Chunking (grouping of separate bits of information in a
meaningful way) improves capacity for short-term memory.
 Without continued rehearsal and use, this information is
generally lost from memory in about 20 seconds.
 The value of short-term memory is that it enables us to store
information long enough to make sense of the words and data
we are dealing with at a certain moment.
 When we have rehearsed and transformed input into
meaningful information, it then has a chance of being encoded
in the long-term memory.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

 Passive, unconscious process as differentiated from Short-Term
Memory (active, dynamic, conscious).
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
 Information enters slowly, not easily accessible, can be stored
in unlimited amounts, is retained indefinitely, not easily
disrupted.
Cognitive psychologists have identified the three components of
Long-Term Memory:
 Episodic Memory – associated with our recall of particular
times and places and a storage place for many personal
experiences.
 Semantic Memory – knowledge of general facts, principles and
concepts that are not connected to a particular time and place.
Organized in networks of connected ideas or relationships.
 Procedural Memory – refers to “knowing how” as opposed to
“knowing what.”
Causes of Forgetting
 a) Retrieval Theory- forgetting is due to inability to recall the
information.
 b) Decay Theory- information stored in LTM gradually fades
when it is not used.
 c) Interference Theory- forgetting in LTM is due to the
influence of other episodes of learning.
 d) Distortion of Memory Traces Theory – Forgetting is due to
inaccuracies during the stage of remembering
 E) Motivated Forgetting Theory – Forgetting is due to the
person’s desire to forget.
Teaching for Transfer (Gagne)

 Transfer – means to convey or cause to pass from one place,

person or thing to another; to direct (a person) elsewhere for
help or information.
 Retention – the ability to recall or recognize what has been
learned or experienced.
 Interference – an act or instance of hindering, distracting, or
impeding.
 Forgetting – the apparent loss of information already encoded
and stored in an individual’s long-term memory.
Forgetting
 Decay (lack of use) and interference (new information
interferes with remembering old information) appears to be
the primary means by which information is lost in the short-
term memory.
 Information stored in the long-term memory is never
completely lost although it may be difficult to retrieve.
 Interference causes forgetting in both long-term and short-
term memory, that is, newer information and experiences can
interfere with or cloud older memories.
Types of Interference
 Proactive Inhibition – previous knowledge makes it difficult to
remember new knowledge.
Types of Interference
 Retroactive Inhibition – assimilation of new information
gets in the way of remembering already stored
information.

 Transfer- when something previously learned influences

the learning of the new material.
Transfer of Learning (Types):
a) Lateral Transfer- occurs when the individual is able to
perform a new task about the same level.
(e.g. solving word problems given in text and later solving a
similar problem on the board)
b) Vertical Transfer- occurs when the individual is able to
learn more advanced/ complex skills
(e.g. being able to add and multiply; being able to read and
write)
c) Specific Transfer- when a specific skill, fact or rule is
applied to a similar situation.
d) General Transfer- applying principles previously learned
to dissimilar situations.
5. Robert Gagne’s Cumulative Learning
-any task or skill can be broken down to simpler skills which can still
be further broken down to more simple tasks or skills.
1. Signal Learning – responding to a signal, response is conditioned.
2. Stimulus-Response Learning- voluntary responses are learned.
3. Chaining/ Motor- two or more separate motor/ verbal responses may
be combined or chained to develop a more complex response.
4. Verbal Association- verbal connections are used to create
associations.
5. Discrimination Learning- learner selects or distinguishes a response
which apples to stimuli.
6. Concept Learning- gives common response to an entire class of
stimuli.
7. Principle Learning (Rule Learning) – involves combining and relating
concepts.
8. Problem Solving- considered the most complex condition that leads
to the discovery of higher order rules.
Nine Events of Instruction

1. Gaining Attention
2. Informing Learner of Objective/s
3. Recalling Prior Knowledge
4. Presenting Material
5. Providing Guided Learning
6. Eliciting Performance
7. Providing Feedback
8. Assessing Performance
9. Enhancing Retention and Transfer
6. Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory

Intelligence - 1) The ability to create an effective product or

offer a service that is valued in a culture; 2) A set of skills that
make it possible for a person to solve problems in life; and 3)
The potential for finding or creating solutions for problems,
which involves gathering new knowledge.

Achievement- refers to the previous learning of a person in a

certain subject area; his already accomplished skills.

Multiple Intelligence- capacity of a person to make use of or

adopt two or more intelligences.
All people have different kinds of intelligences; hence,
the use of the word multiple.
 Intelligence Competence Examples

1. Linguistic- sensitivity to -Ability to learn language Writers, poets,

spoken and written language -Capacity to use language to lawyers,
accomplish certain goals speakers

2. Logical/ mathematical- Ability to detect patterns, Scientists,

analyses problems logically, reason deductively and think mathematicians
carry out mathematical logically.
operations, and investigate
issues scientifically.

3. Musical- skill in the -Capacity to recognize and Musicians and

performance, composition and compose musical pitches, tones composers
appreciation of musical and rhythms.
patterns.

4. Bodily Kinesthetic-using Ability to use mental abilities to Athletes,

one’s whole body or body parts coordinate bodily movements. dancers
to solve and convey ideas.

5. Spatial- recognize and use

patterns of wide space and
more confined areas.

6. Interpersonal- working -Capacity to understand the Educators,

effectively with others intentions, motivations, and salespeople,
desires of other people. religious
counsellors,
politicians

7. Intrapersonal- working -Capacity to understand

effectively with oneself. oneself, appreciate one’s
feelings, fears and motivations.

8. Naturalist- appreciation of -Ability to recognize, categorize Nature-lover,

the environment/ nature. and grow upon certain features environmentalist
of the environment.
Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

The ninth intelligence is called existential , a concern with ultimate

issues.
The final, and obvious, candidate for inclusion in Howard
Gardner’s list is moral intelligence, a concern with those rules,
behaviors and attitudes that govern the sanctity of life – in
particular, the sanctity of human life and, in many cases, the
sanctity of any other living creatures and the world they inhabit’.
7. Kurt Lewin’s Field Theory
•View- focused on the psychological field of life space of an
individual.
•Life Space Concept- Accurate conclusions are drawn by observing
both overt and covert behavior.
•An individual must see things from the subject’s point of view at a
given moment.

8. Urie Brofenbrenner’s Ecological Systems/ Environmental

Contexts Theory
-Learning is greatly affected by the kind of environment we are in.
-Learners are understood within the context of their environment.
These environmental contexts are interrelated.
Environmental Contexts: Major Levels

1. Microsystem - innermost level – contains the structure that has

direct contact with the child. A pattern of activities, social roles,
and interpersonal relations experienced by the developing
person in a given face-to-face setting with particular physical,
social, and symbolic features that invite or permit more complex
interaction with, and activity in, the immediate environment.

2. Mesosystem – connections between the structures of the

child’s microsystem. Comprises the linkages and processes
taking place between two or more settings containing the
developing person. A system of microsystems.
 3. Exosystem – 3rd level – A social system which indirectly
affects the child. Comprises the linkages and processes taking
place between two or more settings, at least one of which
does not contain the developing person, but in which events
occur that indirectly influence processes within the immediate
setting in which the developing person lives.

 4. Macrosystem – outermost level in which all other systems

are embedded such as values, customs, laws, beliefs, and
resources of a culture/ society. Consists of overarching
pattern of micro-, meso- and exosystems characteristic of
a given culture or subculture. It may be thought of as a
societal blueprint for a particular culture or subculture.
Environmental Contexts: Major Levels
 5. Chronosystem – this system includes changes or
consistencies in a person’s lifespan. Encompasses change
or consistency over time not only in the characteristics of
the person but also of the environment in which that
person lives. It is the evolution of the four other systems
over time.
 If the relationships in the immediate microsystem break
down, the child will not have the tools to explore other
parts of his environment resulting to behavioral
deficiencies.
 Learning tends to regress/slow down when the
environment of the child is in turmoil.
9. Lev Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism
Cognitive development is viewed as dependent on social
interaction. The child is socially dependent at the beginning of his
cognitive life and becomes increasingly independent in his thinking
through many experiences in which adults or older peers help or offer
help.
-it emphasizes how meaning and understanding grow out of social
encounters.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) –gap between actual and potential

encounters.
•Actual Development – what children can do on their own
•Potential Development – what children can do with help
 Scaffolding - competent assistance or support through mediation
of the environment (significant others) in which cognitive, socio-
emotional and behavioral development can occur.
 Systematic, deductive reasoning permits individuals to consider
many possible solutions to a problem and pick the correct answer.
 The child acquires new skills and information with the zone of
proximal development (ZPD), the level at which a child finds a task
too difficult to complete alone, but which he can accomplish with
the assistance or support of an adult or older peer
 This theory suggests that in addition to providing a stimulating
environment , early childhood educators need to promote
discovery, explaining and providing suggestions to suit each child’s
zone of proximal development.
Specific Strategies for Memory Enhancement
 Use mnemonic devices. One is the successive-
comparison system which is based on the idea that if two
ideas are blended vividly in the mind, recalling one of
them will automatically lead to recall.
 Over learn the material. Retention of new material can
be enhanced if practice or review continues beyond the
first errorless reproduction of the new information.
 Distribute, study and practice new material (similar to
medicine – can be taken in large or small doses).
 Sleep after studying, not before.
General Principles of Learning
 Learning by doing is more effective than just sitting and
listening
 Concepts should be presented in varied or different ways
 Learning is aided by formulating and asking questions
 Effort is put forth when tasks are challenging
 The principle of readiness is related to the learner’s stage
of development
General Principles of Learning
 Learners learn from their own behavior.
 Learning is most effective when correct responses are
reinforced immediately.
 The frequency of reinforcement determines how well a
response will be learned and retained.
 Practicing a response in a variety of settings increases
both retention and transferability.
 Motivated conditions influence the effectiveness of
positive reinforcement and play a key role in increasing
the level of performance.
General Principles of Learning

 Meaningful learning is more permanent and more

transferable than rote learning.
 People learn more effectively when they learn at their
own pace.

Teaching Strategies That Can Enhance Retention and

Learning
 Make sure you have students’ attention and look for
ways to keep it.
 Help students see relationship between information
they have learned previously and the new information.
 Give students opportunities for repetitive study and
for review.
 Reduce memorization to a minimum; keep meaning
and comprehension at a maximum.

MOTIVATION

What Motivation is
An internal state or condition (sometimes described as
a need, desire or want) that serves to activate or
energize behavior and gives it direction.
 Although motivation cannot be seen directly, it can be
inferred from behavior which we ordinarily refer to as
ability. Ability refers to what an individual can do or is
able to do and motivation (or lack of it) refers to what a
person wants to do.
 In order to do this effectively, it is necessary to
understand that motivation comes in two forms.
Types of Motivation
1. Extrinsic Motivation – when students work hard to win
their parents’ favor, gain teachers’ praise or earn high
grades, their reasons for work and study lie primarily
outside themselves.
 Is fuelled by the anticipation and expectation of some
kind of payoff from an external source.
Extrinsic Motivation
 Teacher is assertive and students are passive.
 Can have a powerful effect on behavior. People work for a
pay check, not just because they like working.
 If students are preoccupied with rewards, they might not
pay so much attention as they should to what they are
supposed to be learning.
 If students perceive themselves as completing assignment
solely to attain rewards, they may develop a “piecework
mentality” or “minimum strategy” in which they
concentrate on maximizing rewards by meeting minimum
standards rather than by doing an excellent job as its own
reward.
Types of Motivation
2. Intrinsic Motivation – when students study because they
enjoy the subject and desire to learn it, irrespective of the
praise won or grades earned, the reason for learning
resides primarily inside or upon themselves.
 Is fuelled by one’s own goal or ambitions.
 Self-starting, self-perpetuating and requires only an
inward interest to keep the motivational machinery going.
 The use of rewards as extrinsic motivation has sometimes
been found to increase intrinsic motivation, something
that is likely to happen when the rewards are contingent
on the quality of performances as opposed to simply
participating in an activity.
 The environment can be used to focus the student’s
attention to what needs to be learned.
 Incentives motivate learning.
 Internal motivation is longer lasting and more self-
directed than is external motivation, which must be
repeatedly reinforced by praise or concrete rewards.

General Ways of Motivating People

 By enticement
 By force
 By identification or ego-involvement
Principles of Motivation

 Listening is most effective when an individual is ready

to learn; that is, when he/she wants to know
something.
 Motivation is enhanced by the manner or way in which
the instructional material is organized.
Theories of Motivation

Drive Theory (Clark Hull)

 Drive is a condition of arousal or tension that motivates
behavior.
 Drives most typically have been considered to involve
physiological survival needs: hunger, thirst, sleep, pain,
sex.
 A drive results from the activation of a need.
 Need – a physiological deficiency that creates a condition
of disequilibrium in the body.
Self-Efficacy (Albert Bandura)
 Self-efficacy – It is the belief that one has the capabilities
to execute the courses of action required to manage
prospective situations.
 Self-efficacy relates to a person’s perception of his ability
to reach a goal while self-esteem relates to a person’s
sense of self-worth.
 Self-efficacy affects people’s behavior including their:
1. choice of activities
2. goals
3. efforts and persistence
4. learning and achievement
Factors in the Development of Self-Efficacy
 Previous successes and failures
 Messages from others
 Successes and failures of others
 Successes and failures of the group as a whole

Self-Determination (E. Deci)

Self-Determination - comes from the sense of autonomy
that a person has when it comes to things that he does
and the choices he makes.
It implies:
 Tasking for a long period of time
Self-Determination (E. Deci)
 Thinking meaningfully and creatively about certain tasks
 Experiencing pleasure in one’s activities
 Achieving at a higher level

We have the capacity to take risks or challenges that can

enrich our lives and develop ourselves more.

There are several variables that influence people’s sense of

self determination one way or the other, such as:
 Choices
 Threats and deadlines
 Controlling statements
 Extrinsic rewards
 Surveillance and evaluation
Expectancies and Values (Atkinson)

Motivation to perform is affected by two variables:

 Expectancy – People must believe that they can
accomplish a task; that is, they should have an
expectancy about what they want to achieve.
 Value – People should likewise place an importance or
value in what they are doing

Factors Affecting Expectancy:

 Previous triumphs and failures
 Perceived difficulty of a task
 One’s general work habits
Factors Affecting Expectancy
 Environmental resources
 Quality of instruction
 Anticipated effort necessary to succeed

Values
Values are equally subjective in nature. Some activities are
valued due to:
 personal characteristics that a person yearns for;
 their being seen as means to a desired goal;
 the fact that they bring happiness
Attribution Theory (B. Weiner)

 Attributions pertain to people’s various explanations for

success and failure – their beliefs about what causes
attributions.
 Dimensions underlying people’s attributions. People can
explain events in many different ways. For example, a
tennis player may attribute his wins and successes in
matches to things like – luck, health, effort, mood,
strengths and weaknesses of his opponents, climate, his
fans, etc.
Attributions of people are affected by three dimensions:
1. Locus (Place) – Internal vs. External
2. Temporal Stability: Stable vs. Unstable
3. Controllability: Controllable vs. Uncontrollable
 David Kolb’s Learning Styles
Learning Styles – are tools utilized by learners to cope and adjust to the learning
environment.

Learning Styles Educational Implications

1. Convergers – rely on abstract conceptualizing and Teacher should provide learning tasks
experimenting that have specific answers like numbers
 They like to find specific, concrete answers and move and figures/units.
quickly to solution
 Unemotional, since they prefer to deal with things rather
than people.
2. Assimilators – rely most on abstract conceptualizing and Teacher should provide learning tasks
reflective observation that call for integration of
 Interested in theoretical concerns than in applications. materials/situational activities

3. Divergers –rely on concrete experience and active Teacher should provide group activities
participation since learners enjoy working in groups.
 Generate ideas and enjoy working with people.

4. Accommodators – rely on concrete experience and Teacher should provide learning tasks
active experimentation that call for hands-on approach.
 Risk – taking, action-oriented, adaptable in new
situations.
 Types of Learners
Types of Learners/ Perceptual Channel
1. Auditory Learners – prefer to learn by
listening/auditory perceptual channel.
2. Visual Learners – prefer print materials/visual -
perceptual channel
3. Tactile Learners – like to manipulate
objects/tactile perceptual channel
4. Kinesthetic or Whole-body Learners – like to
learn through experiential activities/
kinesthetic perceptual channel
Educational Implications/ Learning
Preferences
- Learning is the teaching approach
that works best for them.
- Songs/poems are useful and effective
learning tools.
Reading/responding to visual cues,
such as the chalkboard or
transparencies
- Textbooks and pictures are useful and
effective learning tools.
- Hands-on or laboratory methods of
learning are most appropriate for
learners.
- Tracing diagrams or using texture
examples.
- Simulations, exploratory activities and
problem-solving approach of
teaching. Pacing or dancing while
learning new material.
Techniques in Motivating Learners
 Challenge them. Offer students opportunities to
undertake real challenges. Encourage them to take
intellectual risks.
 Build on strengths first. Seize opportunity to use their
talents to achieve success.
 Offer choices. Offering choices develop ownership. When
a child makes decisions he is more likely to accept
ownership and control of the results.
 Provide a secure environment. Permit children to fail
without penalty. Learning how to deal with failure is
critical for developing motivation and successful learning.
Techniques in Motivating Learners

 Teach them how to make their tasks more manageable.

Narrowing the topic to a challenging but manageable size
is very important for developing motivation.
 Teach students to evaluate themselves. Self-evaluation
needs to address the questions: “What was done well?”
and “How can it be improved?”
 Competition – can enhance or reduce motivation
depending on how it is used. It is good for some, but it
may result in a few winners and many losers.
 ANALYZING TEST ITEMS

1. The learner should be biologically prepared

applies to the law of

A. Readiness
B. Exercise
C. Effect
D. Practice
 Analysis:

Biologically prepared here refers to the particular age level that

a child can do or exhibit a particular behaviour expected of
him.
A. This is the correct answer because the child is ready to do a
particular thing or exhibit the behaviour expected of him at
a particular level. Biological preparedness or readiness
cannot be advanced nor delayed because it is a natural
unfolding.
B. and D. Exercise and practice are similar concepts. If a child is
not ready to learn, how can he practice or exercise if he has
not yet learned something?
C. Effect- this is in contrast to preparedness. Something has
already taken place or has happened to see its effect/s.
Preparedness has something to do with “before” and
the effect with “after”.
2. Which of the following statements will not
support the concept of individual differences?

A. Use varied activities for a difficult lesson

B. Consider the uniqueness of each student
C. Involve all students regardless of what the
activity is.
D. Help should be extended to both the gifted
and retarded learners/students.
 Analysis:

Focus here is on the concept of individual differences.

A. Using varied activities will meet individual differences. Some of the activities
may be simple which will be suited to the slow or average students while
some activities which may be quite difficult will be for the fast or bright
students.
B. Considering the uniqueness (what an individual possesses which offers do
not) is tantamount to acknowledging individual differences .
C. Is the correct answer. Not all students will be interested in an activity
especially if it is not interesting to them or is somewhat difficult to do. If all
students will be involved regardless of what the activity is, then the concept
of individual differences is not applied.
D. Helping both the gifted and the retarded learners/students is also considered
as recognizing individual differences. Though some students are gifted,
somehow they also need help in other aspects of development.
3. Mr. David would like to increase the abilities of
his students to solve more complex problems.
What must Mr. David do?

A. Correct all wrong answers at all times.

B. Increase practice with simple problems.
C. Reduce stimulation so as to increase attention to
the task.
D. Match problems appropriately to students’ level
of thinking.
 Analysis:
The thing to consider here is “to solve more complex problems”.

A. Just correcting the wrong answers of students at all time will

not increase their abilities in solving more complex
problems.
B. It deals with simple problems. How will the students learn
solving complex problems when they are used to solving
simple problems only.
C. If stimulation is lessened, the more students’ attention to
the task at hand will be lessened, the more they will not
think and be able to solve especially complex problems.
D. This is the correct answer. Matching the problems to be
solved with the students’ level of thinking is saying that the
problem to be solved, though how complex it is, is still not
too easy nor too difficult but just right for the students to
work on.
4. Which of the following statements is false about
motivation?

A. A force that energizes, sustains and directs behaviour

toward a goal.
B. Sometimes referred to as the “go of personality”, in
that its absence usually reduces most normal people to
a state of listlessness and apathy.
C. It is an internal state or condition that serves to
activate or energize behaviour and gives it direction.
D. It is a psychological state that is the consequence with
a person having activated his motives.
5. The following are specific strategies for memory
enhancement. Which one is not?

A. Use mnemonic devices

B. Overlearn the material
C. Sleep before studying
D. Distribute, study and practice new materials
6. Which of the following statements is false?

A. Critical thinking is a process, the goal of which is

to make reasonable decisions about what to
believe and what to do.
B. Creative thinking is the generation of thoughts,
ideas, decisions and actions often by novel and
unexpected means.
C. Metacognition is the capacity to monitor and
regulate one’s own thinking or mental activity.
D. None of the above.
7. Which phase in observational learning does this
refer to? – “Although observer acquires and
retains ability to perform the modelled behavior,
there will be no overt performances unless
conditions are favorable”

A. Attention
B. Retention
C. Motivational Process
D. Motor Reproduction Process
8. Which of the following best describes what
meaningful learning is?

A. When what is to be learned is new and easy for

the students.
B. Materials presented are difficult and challenging
to the students.
C. When the material to be learned is related to
what the students already know.
D. Students find the lesson easy and relevant to
what was assigned to them.
9. Which of the following principles of learning
applies to considering students’ age in presenting
certain content and cognitive processes?

A. Principle of readiness
B. Principle of learning by doing
C. Principle of presenting challenging tasks
D. Principle of learning aided by formulating and
asking questions
10. When the usual manner of doing things is
lost, the process is called

A. Habituation
B. Extinction
C. Shaping
D. None of the above
11. There are six levels in cognitive development
moving through the lowest process to the
highest. (1.knowledge 2. application 3.
synthesis 4. analysis 5. comprehension 6.
evaluation)
A. 1-5-2-4-3-6
B. 1-2-3-4-5-6
C. 1-3-5-2-4-6
D. 1-4-2-3-5-6
12. Which principle below underlies cognitive
learning?

A. Prior knowledge can help or hinder learning.

B. Meaningful engagement is necessary for
deeper learning.
C. Motivation generates, directs, and sustains
learning behavior.
D. All of the above.
13. Which of the following statements about
motivation is false?

A. External motivation is more long-lasting and

more self-directed than internal motivation.
B. Motivation is enhanced by the manner in which
the instructional material is organized.
C. Motivation to perform is affected by expectancy
and value.
D. Internal motivation is fuelled by one’s goals or
ambitions.
14. Which is not a characteristic of a
metacognitive thinker?

A. Has a realistic self-concept

B. Able to make plans for himself
C. Able to set short-term and long-term goals
D. Proposes solutions to problems
15. The following are levels in learning
psychomotor skills. Which one is not?

A. Organization
B. Perception
C. Guided Response
D. Mechanism
16. Which of the following is not included in
affective learning?

A. Attitudes
B. Beliefs
C. Values
D. Ambitions
17. Which of the following will enhance the learning
of pre-schoolers?

A. Always give rewards and never punish.

B. Activities should be hands-on and not written.
C. Use attractive, colorful and challenging materials.
D. Make activities too easy, simple, and for a short
period of time.
18. Maturation should precede certain types of
learning. How is this applied in the classroom?

A. Follow the interest of the students in assigning

tasks.
B. Concepts should be taught from simple to
complex.
C. Consider age level of students in teaching certain
concepts.
D. Give the same task to all students in a particular
grade level.
19. Why should a teacher provide positive
feedback and realistic praise?

A. To motivate the students to study.

B. So the students will know what to do.
C. To be liked and loved by the students.
D. So the students will praise him/her.
20. Which statement does not refer to cognitive
theories?

A. Prefer to concentrate on analyzing cognitive

process.
B. Conclusions are based on observation of
external manifestations of learning.
C. Study the structure and components of
information processing.
D. Believe in non-observable behavior.
21. Which of the following is an application of classical
conditioning in the classroom?

A. A first grade teacher greets each of the students with

a smile when they come into the room in the
morning.
B. The teacher checks the given assignment every day.
C. The monitoring of absences is done by the class
secretary
D. Cleanliness and orderliness of the room is a must in
the classroom of Mrs. Orilla.
22. Which of the following principles apply in this
situation? Teacher presents a new lesson wherein
students were asked to work on a new project which
was somewhat complicated. The students showed
interest while working on it.

A. Effort is put forth when tasks are challenging

B. Lessons should be presented in varied and different
ways
C. Meaningful materials are readily learned more than
nonsense materials
D. Teachers should provide opportunities for
meaningful and appropriate practice
23. All, except one, are characteristics of Skinner’s
reinforcement and operant conditioning. Which one is
not?

A. Stressed the consequence of behavior in order to learn

B. Proved that reinforcement is a powerful tool in shaping
and controlling behavior in and out of the classroom
C. Emphasized the greater influence of the environment
on learning and behavior; that is, either to reinforce or
to eliminate
D. None of the above
24. What should a teacher do to help students learn
psychomotor skills?

A. Teacher uses verbal explanations and description

of the movements, in addition to live
demonstration of the movements
B. Teacher provides feedback to the learner about
his/her progress
C. Teacher encourages the learner to practice and
practice in order to maintain his sharpness
D. All of the above
25. Which is an application of cognitive approach to
motivation?

A. Explain the reasons for studying the topic.

B. Create a supportive classroom climate for
students.
C. Provide a clear and prompt feedback on
assignments.
D. Begin lessons with challenging questions and
conditioning events.
ENHANCING TEST TAKING SKILLS

1. Which theory operates in “stimulus-response”

principle, which means all behaviors are caused
by external stimuli”?
A. Contextualist Theory
B. Behavioristic Theory
C. Cognitive Theory
D. Constructivist Theory
Analysis:
Option A- it explains that learning is greatly affected
by the kind of environment an
individual lives in
Option B- is the correct option. It tells about how
behaviors are acquired and developed through
external stimuli
Option C- it tells about psychological factors that
influence the behavior of people
Option D- it mentions about learner as an
information constructor
2. Teacher Angelo, a SPED teacher, before
introducing a new lesson, helps his highly
functioning ADHD students build the prerequisite
knowledge since prior knowledge is essential for
the comprehension of new information. What is
associated in the situation?
A. Social Learning
B. Information Processing
C. Dual-Coding
D. Schema
Analysis:
Option A - it tells about how people learn through
observation, imitation, and modelling.
Option B - it explains that an individual learns when the
human mind takes in information, performs
operation in it and retrieves when needed.
Option C - it mentions about mental images and verbal
descriptions as tools for retaining information.
Option D- is the correct option. It discusses how prior
knowledge helps the learner understand the new
information in the learning process.
3. Ms. Erika, in her Biology class, accompanies her
discussion with interesting visual aids. She
strongly believes that students learn better when
lessons are presented with images, real or
imagined, aside from more lecture method or
verbal representations. Which learning theory
does she uphold?
A. Social Cognitive Theory
B. Dual-Coding Theory
C. Information Processing Approach
D. Meaningful Reception Learning Theory
Analysis:
Option A - it explains that children learn by what they
see and observe.
Option B - is the correct option since the teacher uses
both mental images and verbal representations as
tools in affecting learning.
Option C - it tells about gaining insight in understanding
information.
Option D - it talks in relatedness between previously
known information to new information to make
learning more meaningful.
4. Marga, a 3-year old girl, applies make-up on her
face, gets her mom’s bag, wears her mom’s
shoes, and starts to walk around the receiving
room after her mom left for work. What theory
explains such?
A. Contextual Theory
B. Cognitive theory
C. Social learning
D. Constructivist Theory

Analysis:
Option A - it points out that learning is greatly affected by
the kind of environment an individual lives in.
Option B - it tells about the influence of psychological factors
on how one behaves.
Option C - is the correct option. It explains that children
learn by simply watching and observing the behavior of
another person, called the model, and later imitating the
model’s behavior.
Option D - it illustrates that learning is an active and
constructive process whereby the learner is on
information construction.
5. Which of the following learning theories of
Thorndike states that an organism
learns by doing and forget by not doing ? In
other words, it refers to the law of use and
law of disuse?
A. Law of Effect
B. Law of Set and Attitude
C. Law of Readiness
D. Law of Exercise
Analysis:
Option A - it explains the role of reward and
punishment in increasing desirable and undesirable
behaviors.
Option B - it tells about “pre-judgments” or prior
experience that affects a given task.
Option C - it points out on satisfying and annoying
response, depending on the preparedness of the
learner.
Option D - is the correct answer. It suggests that
connections between a stimulus and a response are
strengthened as they are used and weakened when
practice is discontinued.
6. Which of the following learning theories
explains the Zone of Proximal Development
(ZPD) wherein the gap between actual and
potential development should be mediated?
A. Social Cognitive
B. Social Constructivism
C. Cognitive Construction
D. Cognitive Behavior Modification
7. Mr. Ang patiently teaches his son, John, on how
to ride a bike. After a month of holding
on to Johns’ bike while John rides on it, Mr. Ang
gradually detaches himself to the bike so
that John could now ride his bike on his own.
What has been practiced in the situation?
A. Learning
B. Scaffolding
C. Knowing
D. Understanding
8. Who among the proponents of theories of
learning was known for his “Bobo Doll”
experiment wherein children imitated what they
have witnessed regarding the treatment given to
the Bobo doll?
A. Albert Bandura
B. Julian Rotter
C. Ivan Pavlov
D. Burhuss Skinner
9. What theory explains the interlocking of one
system to another system wherein if the
relationship in the immediate system breaks
down, the child will not have the tools to
explore other parts of his environment , resulting
to behavioral deficiencies?
A. Contextual Theory
B. Constructivist Theory
C. Behaviorist Theory
D. Cognitive Theory
10. Which of the following best describes what
meaningful learning is?
A. When what is to be learned is new and easy
for students.
B. Materials presented are difficult and
challenging to students.
C . When the material to be learned is related to
what students already know.
D. Students find the lessons easy and relevant to
what was assigned to them.
11. Ms. Jones, after learning the statements made
by her colleagues toward their newly appointed
principal, carefully deliberates on whether to
accept or reject or suspend judgment on such
claim. What type of thinking is demonstrated by
Ms. Jones?
A. Creative thinking
B. Critical thinking
C. Reflective thinking
D. Logical thinking
12. The class of Mr. Veloso read the book entitled
“The Reader” after which he divided the class
into two groups and asked each group to write
and perform a play based on the story. The group
who performed better was exempted from taking
the long quiz. What cognitive domain is
manifested in the situation?
A. Evaluation
B. Knowledge
C. Analysis
D. Synthesis
13. Mr. Tan is a man of principles. He sees to it
that he assesses correctly his statements
using analysis and logic before disclosing his
evaluation to his subordinates. Mr. Tan is
manifesting what type of thinking?
A. Creative thinking
B. Critical thinking
C. Reflective thinking
D. Logical thinking
14. One of Mr. Agors’ members in the dance troupe
collapsed during their rehearsal for
their upcoming competition in Seoul, Korea.
What should Mr. Agor do with the student?
A. Ignore the student and go on with the
rehearsal
B. Pull-out the student and bring her/him back
to normal condition
C. Do not allow him/her anymore to join the
competition
D. Give him/her first aid
15. According to this cognitive theory, the
individual learns when the human mind
takes in information (encoding), performs
operation on it, stores the information (storage)
and retrieves it when needed (retrieval)
A. Meaningful Reception
B. Cumulative Learning
C. Information Processing
D. Cognitive Behavior Modification
16. Learning is said to be meaningful when new
information is related to what the learner
already knows. What theory supports such
statement?
A. Cognitive Behavior Modification
B. Information Processing
C. Cumulative Learning
D. Meaningful Reception
17. It refers to the acquisition of fine and gross
motor skills in conjunction with muscular
development, as they relate to the mental
process.
A. Cognitive Learning
B. Affective Learning
C. Psychomotor Learning
D. Social Learning
18. Teacher Kiko prepared the materials for his
laboratory class in Chemistry. He instructed
the team leader in every group to start along with
the other members of the group. Kiko allowed his
students to construct their own knowledge through
direct experience and enabled them to create
schema. What theory is displayed in the given
situation?
A. Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
B. Urie Brofenbrenner’s Ecological System Theory
C. Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Constructivism
D. Lev Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism
19. When the nature of a situation has a
significant effect on the process of learning,
the principle involved is called
A. learning modalities
B. individual differences in learning
C. situated learning
D. learning styles
20. Like nature vs. nurture, heredity and environment
play a significant role in the learning process. This
theorist proposed that environmental context has
four major levels in which if the relationship in the
immediate system breaks down, the child will not
have the tools to explore other parts of his
environment resulting to behavioral and academic
deficiencies.
A. William Kohlberg
B. Robert Gagne
C. David Ausubel
D. Urie Brofenbenner
21. Schools and teachers should work to support the
primary relationship of the child and the school and
must create an environment that welcomes family
relationships. What could be the best activities that
would demonstrate strong relationship and close
collaboration between home and school?
A. Giving of report card and outing
B. Parent-conferencing and ticket-selling
C. Home visitation and parent-conferencing
D. Telephone brigade and interview
22. It explains the gap between school development
and potential development in which the former
refers to what children can do on their own, and
the latter, to what children can do with help.
A. Scaffolding
B. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
C. Assimilation
D. Accommodation
23. Joy, a sophomore high school student from Sto.
Tomas School, is well-known for her ability to
showcase her talent during the sophomore night.
She has the most number of acquaintances
because of her initiative to start a conversation
with her co-students. Joy is gifted with:
A. Intrapersonal Intelligence
B. Interpersonal Intelligence
C. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
D. Linguistic Intelligence
24. It is an instructional process in which the
teacher adjusts the amount and type of
support offered to the child to suit the child’s
abilities, withdrawing the support as the child
becomes more skilled.
A. Scaffolding
B. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
C. Assimilation
D. Accommodation
25. One of the requirements of teacher Carmel in her
class is a case study. She grouped her students into
four and asked each to prepare a case to present
their views about homosexuality. What cognitive
domain is involved?
A. Evaluation
B. Knowledge
C. Synthesis
D. Analysis
26. A boy exhibits fear response to freely roaming
dogs but does not show fear when a dog is on a
leash or confined to a pen. Which conditioning
process is illustrated?
A. Generalization
B. Extinction
C. Acquisition
D. Discrimination
27. Teacher F is convinced that whenever a student
performs a desired behavior, is provided
reinforcement, soon the student will learn to perform
the behavior on his own. On which principle is Teacher
F’s conviction based?
A. Cognitivism C. Behaviorism
B. Environmentalism D. Constructivism

28. Which teaching activity is founded on Bandura’s

Social Learning Theory?
A. Lecturing C. Questioning
B. Modeling D. Inductive Reasoning
29. Behavior followed by pleasant consequences will be
strengthened and will be more likely to occur in the
future. Behavior followed by unpleasant consequences
will be weakened and will less likely be repeated in the
future. Which one is explained?
A. Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
B. Thorndike’s Law of Effect
C. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory
D. Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
30. A mother gives her boy his favorite snacks every time the
boy cleans up his room. Afterwards, the boy cleaned his
room everyday in anticipation of the snacks. Which
theory is illustrated?
A. Associative learning C. Operant conditioning
 B. Classical conditioning D. Pavlovian conditioning
31. Studies in the area of neuroscience have disclosed that the
human brain has limitless capacity. What does this imply?
A. Some pupils are admittedly not capable of learning
B. Every pupil has his own native ability and his learning is
limited to this native ability.
C. Every pupil is a potential genius
D. Pupils can possibly reach a point where they have learned
everything.
32. Based on Piaget’s theory, what should a teacher provide for
children in the concrete operation stage?
A. Activities for hypothesis formulation
B. Learning activities that involve problems of classification
and ordering
C. Games and other physical activities to develop motor skills
 D. Stimulating environment with ample objects to play with.
33. Based on Piaget’s theory, what should a teacher provide
for children in the sensorimotor stage?
A. Games and other physical activities to develop motor
skills
B. Learning activities that involve problems of classification
and ordering
C. Activities for hypothesis formulation
D. Stimulating environment with ample objects to play with.

34. A sixth grade, twelve-year-old boy comes from a

dysfunctional family and has been abused and neglected.
He has been to two orphanages and three different
elementary schools. The student can decode in the
second grade level but can comprehend orally
 in the fourth or fifth grade level. The most probable
cause/s of this student’s reading problem is/are
A. Emotional factors C. Neurological factors
B. Poor teaching D. Immaturity

35. A child who gets punished for stealing candy may not
steal again immediately, but this does not mean he may
not steal again. Based on Thorndike’s theory, it appears
that
A. punishment strengthens a response
B. punishment removes a response
C. punishment does not remove a response
D. punishment weakens a response.
36. John Watson said, “Men are built, not born.” What does this
statement point out?
A. The ineffectiveness of training on a person’s development
B. The effect of environmental stimulation on a person’s
development
C. The absence of genetic influence on a person’s
development
D. The effect of heredity.
37. The principle of individual differences requires teachers to
A. give greater attention to gifted learners
B. treat all learners alike while in the classroom
C. prepare modules for slow learners in the class
D. provide for a variety of learning activities.
38. How do cognitive psychologists see the learner?
A. With empty minds C. Full of experiences
B. Uninterested to learn D. Totally conditioned by the
environment

39. Lilian was first asked to compare identical amounts of

liquids in short glasses. The liquid from one of the two
short glasses was poured into taller, skinner glass of the
same capacity. Lilian indicated that the amounts of liquid
in two different glasses are still the same. What is Lilian
capable of?
A. Assimilation C. Conservation
B. Accommodation D. Reversibility
40. A caregiver working with infants aims to maximize their
cognitive development by having an environment that
provides multi-sensorial stimulation. This is guided by the
theory of ________.
A. Erikson C. Gardner
B. Piaget D. Goleman

41. If a child is bitten by large, black dog, the child may fear
not only that black dog but also other large dogs. Which
conditioning process is illustrated?
A. Generalization C. Discrimination
B. Acquisition D. Extinction
42. To arouse in them the spirit of nationalism, Teacher F plays
Philippine folk music as pupils enter the classroom after flag
ceremony. To what theory does Teacher F adhere?
A. Humanistic psychology C. Behaviorism
B. Gestalt psychology D. Psychoanalysis

43. Research found out that children learn visual discrimination

task more rapidly if they talk to themselves. This shows that
A. visual discrimination may be learned without vocalization
B. vocalization does not enhance visual discrimination
C. vocalization assists visual discrimination
 D. visual discrimination cannot be learned without
vocalization
44. Which theory backs up the use of computer-assisted
instruction?
A. Classical conditioning
B. Insight learning
C. Associative shifting
D. Operant conditioning

45. Which is the best thing to do when you have reached the
plateau of learning?
A. Rest
B. Forget about learning
C. Shift to other tasks
 D. Reflect
46. On whose psychological theory is computer-based self-
instruction grounded?
A. Pavlov C. Watson
B. Bandura D. Skinner
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