GROUND WATER

ENGINEERING
 UNIT-1
HYDROGEOLOGICAL PARAMETERS

Introduction - Water bearing Properties of Rock - Properties of aquifer - Transmissivity and storage
coefficient - Problems in Specific yield - specific capacity -Darcy’s law and permeability - Methods of
Estimation - Ground water table fluctuation and its interpretations - Type of aquifers - Groundwater
development and Potential in India - groundwater legislation, GEC norms.
1.INTRODUCTION
 GROUND WATER
• Groundwater is the water that occurs in a saturated zone of
variable thickness and depth below the earth’s surface. It is
therefore the water beneath the earth’s surface from which
wells, springs, and groundwater run-off are supplied.
• Groundwater constitutes a component of the earth’s
water circulatory system called the hydrologic cycle.
 Hydrologic Cycle
• The field of science that is concerned with the study of the occurrence,
distribution and movement of water below the surface of the earth is
called Groundwater Hydrology.
• Geohydrology and Hydrogeology have similar connotations; although
hydrogeology differs only with its emphasis on geology.
• The job of a groundwater hydrologist is the management of groundwater
system. His investigation area of interest may be local, regional or even
across countries. Example of areas in which groundwater studies are
carried out include
 evaluation and exploitation of groundwater resources
 dewatering for construction
 inflow into a mine shaft or pit
 seepage beneath or through a dam
 subsurface return flow from irrigation
 seepage from canals and reservoirs
 intrusion of saline water
 subsurface disposal of liquid wastes and
 recharge from rainfall.
 ESTIMATED WORLD WATER
RESOURCES
• Groundwater is the largest source of fresh water on the planet excluding
the polar icecaps and glaciers.
World Total Water Resources (Raghunath, 1987)
SOURCES PERCENTAGE AVAILABLE
Salt water, mainly in oceans Fresh 97.2%
water 2.8%
Surface water 2.2%
Glaciers and icecaps 2.15%
Lakes and reservoirs 0.01%
Streams 0.0001%
Atmosphere 0.001%
Groundwater 0.6%
Economically available 0.3%
 TYPES OF GROUNDWATER
 Meteoric - found in circulatory system of hydrologic
cycle
 Connate - fossil interstitial water out of contact with
the atmosphere for appreciable length of time.
 Juvenile - originates from volcanic emanations
 Metamorphic - associated with heat, pressure and
re-crystallization that created metamorphic rocks
 2. Water bearing Properties of Rock
 Permeability and non-porosity which is significant in water yielding of rocks
 Beside weathering and texture, the presence of numerous sets of joints, fractures,
cleavages and faults breccias form the good water bearing zones in igneous and
metamorphic rocks.
 Solution opening in limestones and dolomites may yield water.
 Water may be yielded through cracks. In consolidated formations.
 Basalts form a good source of water.
 Selection of well site in shaly region must be done carefully, recognising the storage,
infiltration and seepage.
 Sandstones are very good aquifers.
 Marble with fissures and cracks, heavily shattered quartzites and slates weathered
gneisses and schists serve as good aquifers.
 Faults generally affect the water table by blocking or diverting the flow.
 Synclinal trough of alternating layers of permeable and impermeable beds of rocks
providing artesian conditions.
 A series of dipping formation which include a pervious or water bearing stratum with
impervious beds above and below, the outcrop of the pervious bed receiving supply of
water from the surface, form the artesian conditions.
 The quality of water in the well depends on the various types of rocks encountered.
 Swarming of insects in evening at certain points on the surface during dry season and
existence of green grass vegetation are indications of a perched or suspended water table.
 AQUIFERS
• An aquifer is a geologic formation, or a group of
formations, which contains water and permits
significant amount of water to move through it
under ordinary field conditions. Other terms used
are groundwater reservoir (or basin) and water
bearing zone (or formation).
• Aquifers are generally extensive and may be
overlain or underlain by a confining bed.
• A confining bed may be an aquiclude, aquifuge or
aquitard.
• Aquiclude: A relatively impermeable material that
does not yield appreciable quantitaties of water to
wells i.e. may contain water but is incapable of
transmitting significant quantities of water under
ordinary field conditions e.g. clay, shale.
• Aquifuge: A geologic formation neither containing nor
transmitting water e.g. fresh granite, basalt.
• Aquitard: A poorly permeable geologic formation that
transmits water at a very low rate compared to an
aquifer e.g. sandy clay. However, it may transmit
appreciable water to or from adjacent aquifers where
sufficiently thick and may constitute an important
groundwater storage zone.
 AQUIFER CLASSIFICATION
1. Confined Aquifer (Pressure or piezometric aquifers)
 A confined aquifer is confined above and below by an
impervious (may contain water but can’t transmit it) layer
under pressure greater than the atmospheric.
 Therefore, in a well penetrating such an aquifer, the water
level rises above the bottom of the top confining bed.
 The water in a confined aquifer is called confined or
artesian water.
 Artesian water flows freely without pumping and the well
producing such water is called an artesian or a free flowing
well.
2. Unconfined Aquifer (Phreatic, Water table)
• An unconfined aquifer is one in which a water table (phreatic surface)
serves as its upper boundary.
• A phreatic aquifer is directly recharged from the ground surface above it.
• The water level in well taping an unconfined aquifer and the water table in
the aquifer are the same. Therefore, contour maps and profiles of the water
table can be prepared from the elevations of water in wells that tap the
aquifer to determine the quantities of water available, their distribution and
movement.
• 3. Leaky Aquifer (Semi-confined)
• A leaky aquifer is underlain or overlain by semi-pervious strata. Pumping
from a well in a leaky aquifer removes water in two ways: by horizontal
flow within the aquifer and by vertical leakage or seepage through the
semi-confining layer into the aquifer. Aquifers that are completely
confined or unconfined occur less frequently than leaky aquifers.
4. Perched Aquifers
Perched aquifers, are special kinds of phreatic aquifers occurring whenever an
impervious (or semi-pervious) layer of limited extent is located between the
water table of a phreatic aquifer and the ground surface, thereby making a
groundwater body, separated from the main groundwater body, to be formed.
Sometimes, these aquifers exist only during a relatively short part of each year
as they drain to the underlying phreatic aquifer. Therefore wells taping such
aquifers yield only temporary or small quantities of water.
 AQUIFER PARAMETERS
• Porosity
The spaces where groundwater occupies are known as voids,
interstices, pores or pore spaces. They are
fundamentallyimportant to the study of groundwater because
they serve as water conduits. Their nature is dependent on
their geology.
Porosity is a measure by the ration of the contained voids in a
solid mass to its total volume.
θ = vv/V
where θ is the porosity, vv is the volume of voids and V is the
total volume.
The term effective porosity refers to the amount of
interconnected pore space available for fluid flow and is also
expressed as the ratio of the interstices to total volume.
• Shape, size, packing and degree of cementation
affect porosity.
• Uniformly graded sand has a higher porosity than
a less uniform, fine and coarse mixture, because
in the latter, the fines occupy the voids in the
coarse material.
• In square packing for example, the porosity is as
high as 48% while in rhombic packing, it is as low
as 26%. Angularity tends to increase porosity
while cementation decreases porosity.
• Primary porosity is created at the time of origin of the
rock in which they occur. In sedimentary rocks, the
voids coincide with the intergrannular spaces while in
igneous rocks, it results from the cooling of molten lava
and may range in size from minute inter crystalline
spaces to large caverns.
• Secondary porosity results from the actions of
subsequent geological, climatic or biotic factors upon
the original rock.
• Examples include joints, fractures, faults, solution
openings and openings formed by plants and animals.
 Recharge and Discharge
• Groundwater recharge represents the portion of rainfall
which reaches an aquifer.
• Groundwater therefore owes its existence directly or
indirectly to precipitation.
• Artificial recharge occurs from excess irrigation seepage
from canals and water purposely applied to augment
groundwater supplies.
• Seawater can enter underground along the coasts where
the hydraulic gradients slope in an inland direction.
• The most direct way of quantifying recharge is by
examination of borehole hydrograph. This method requires
that the specific yield of the aquifer is known.
• Another approach is to use meteorological data inputs to a
recharge simulation model.
• Natural recharge includes stream bed percolation, deep
percolation of rainfall, leakage from ponds, lakes and
reservoirs.
• Discharge of groundwater occurs when water emerges
from underground. Most natural discharge occurs as flows
into the surface water bodies e.g. streams, lakes and
oceans.
• Discharge to the ground surface appears as springs.
• Groundwater discharge also occurs by evaporation from
within the soil and by transpiration from vegetation that
has access to the water table.
• However, pumpage from wells constitutes the major
artificial discharge of groundwater.
 Specific Yield
• This is the volume of water, expressed as a percentage
of the total volume of the saturated aquifer that can be
drained by gravity.
• The volume retained (by molecular and surface tension
forces) against the force of gravity, expressed as a
percentage of the total volume of the saturated
aquifer, is called the specific retention.
• Porosity = Specific yield + Specific retention.
• Specific yield can be determined in the laboratory by
simple saturation and drainage, while in the field by
pumping a known volume of water out and
determining the volume of sediments drained by
observing the depth of the water lowered.
• Specific yield = (Volume of water pumped out
/Volume of sediments drained) x 100
 Hydraulic Conductivity (K)
• K is the specific discharge (v) per unit hydraulic gradient (dh/dl) at a
specified temperature and expresses the ease with which fluid is
transported through a porous matrix.
K = v/(dh/dl)
where v=Q/A
• It is therefore a coefficient which depends on both matrix and fluid
properties. The relevant fluid properties are density ρ and viscosity μ
(or in the combined form of kinematic viscosity ν).
• The relevant solid matrix properties are mainly grain-(or pore-) size
distribution, shape of grains, arrangement of pores and porosity.
K = kρg/ μ = kg/ ν
• where k (dimensions of L2 ) – called the permeability, or intrinsic
permeability, of the porous matrix – depends solely on properties of
the soil matrix.
• Field measurements of hydraulic conductivity are usually made by
carrying out pumping test on wells while laboratory measurements
are done using permeaters.
 Transmissivity (T)

• T=Kb
where K is the hydraulic conductivity and b, the
thickness of the aquifer.
• T defines the rate at which water of prevailing
kinematic viscosity is transmitted through a
unit width of the aquifer under a unit
hydraulic gradient.
 Storage Coefficient (Storativity)

• Defines the volume of water that an aquifer releases from or

takes into storage per unit surface area of aquifer per unit
change in the component of head normal to that surface.
• It is a dimensionless quantity involving a volume of water per
volume of aquifer.
 DARCY’S LAW
• In 1856, a French hydraulic engineer, Henry Darcy, investigated
the flow of water through horizontal beds of sands to be used for
water filtration in the city of Dijon (France). From his
experiments, he concluded that the rate of flow (i.e. volume of
water per unit time), Q, is proportional to the cross-sectional
area A perpendicular to flow, inversely proportional to the length
and proportional to the loss of head over distance L.
• Combining these yields the Darcy formula:
Q = KA(h -h )/L
1 2

• where K is the coefficient of proportionality called the hydraulic

conductivity and (h -h )/L is called the hydraulic gradient.
1 2

• v = Q/A = Kdh/dl, v is the Darcy velocity or specific discharge

(Q = KA(h -h )/L) therefore Q/A = K(h -h )/L
1 2 1 2

• which is Kdh/dl
• Darcy velocity, v, assumes that flow occurs through the entire
section of the material without regard to solids and pores.
• However, flow is limited to the pore space only and the average
interstitial velocity, va
• Darcy’s law is valid if 1 ≤ NR ≥ 10 (i.e. valid for laminar flow and
not turbulent flow)
NR = ρqd/ μ
where NR = Reynolds number
 ρ = density of groundwater
 q = velocity (seepage or bulk) of groundwater flow.
 d = mean diameter of the soil grain
 μ = dynamic viscosity of groundwater
 STEADY STATE FLOW
• Steady flow occurs when the water level has
ceased to decline as a result of equilibrium
between the discharge of the pumped well and
the recharge of the aquifer buy outside source.
• The Dupuit (1863) equation, later modified by
Theim, 1906 can be used for analysing steady
flow to wells.
STEADY STATE FLOW-Confined Aquifers
The assumptions in Theim’s equation are:

i. the aquifer is confined.

ii. the aquifer has an infinite areal extent.
iii. the aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic and of uniform
thickness over the area influenced by the test.
iv. prior to pumping, the piezometric surface is horizontal
over the area that will be influenced by the test.
v. the aquifer is pumped at a constant discharge rate.
vi the well penetrates the entire saturated thickness of the
aquifer.
vii. the flow to the well is at steady state.
 UNSTEADY STATE FLOW

• Unsteady state flow occurs when water is

taken from storage within the aquifer and the
water level or piezometric head (in confined
aquifer) is gradually reduced.
• Because the water must come from a reduction
in storage within the aquifer, the head will
continue to decline as long as the aquifer is
effectively infinite; therefore, unsteady, or
transient, flow exists.
• The assumptions inherent in Theis (1935) equation are:
 The aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic, of uniform
thickness and has an infinite areal extent.
 Prior to pumping, the piezometric surface is horizontal.
 The aquifer is pumped at a constant discharge rate.
 The well penetrates the entire saturated thickness of the
aquifer.
 The well diameter is infinitesimal so that storage within
the well can be neglected
 Water removed from storage is discharged instantaneously
with decline of head.
 FLUCTATIONS IN GROUNDWATER LEVEL
• Any phenomenon, which produces pressure change within an aquifer, results into the
change of ground water level.
• These changes in ground water level can be a result of changes in storage, amount of
discharge and recharge, variation of stream stages and evaporation.
• External loads such as tides, trains, atmospheric pressure and earthquake are born in part
by the ground water of confined aquifers. Hence they affect peizometric levels.
• The general consideration is that due to any reason if the aquifer pressure rises above the
atmospheric pressure an up leveling in ground water level results and vice- versa.
• There are two broad kinds of level variation.
Secular variation: These are variations in ground water level extending over a period of
years. Alternating seasons of wet and dry years is which the rainfall in above and below the
mean respectively, produce long period fluctuation of level. Recharge is the governing
factor, which depends upon the rainfall intensity and distribution and amount of surface run
off. In over developed basins where draft exceeds recharge, a down ward trend of ground
water level may continue for many years.
Seasonal variation: These results from influence such as recharge from rainfall and
irrigation and discharge by pumping which follow well defined seasonal cycles. Highest
levels occur about April and lowest about September marking the beginning and end of the
irrigation seasons.
Factors governing the fluctuation in
ground water level
There are several factors, which claim the ground water level to change.
These are as follows.
• Due to stream flow: Where a stream channel is in indirect contact with an
unconfined aquifer the stream may recharge the ground water, or receive
discharge from the ground water (termed as influent and effluent
streams respectively streams respectively depending on the relative water
levels. During a period of flood, ground water levels one temporarily
raised near the channel by the inflow of stream.
• Due to evapotranspiration: In areas where the ground water level is very
near to the surface, evaporation plays a dominant role in reducing the
ground water level. Laboratory experiments have shown that if ground
water level is in the range of one foot below the surface the highest rate of
evaporation occurs and the ground water level reduces to 3 to 4 feet, after
that certain limit the effect of evaporation does not occur literally.
• Reduction in ground water level due to transpiration occurs where the root
zones of plants are directly in contact with saturated water zone. This also
results in reducing the ground water level. But in ploughed areas and areas
where no vegetation is there the effect of transpiration in negligible. Hot
windy days produce more draw down that cold cloudy day as in the later
case effect of evaporation in negligible. Transpiration discharge does not
occur also where the ground water level is below the root zone of plants
• Due to atmospheric pressure: A change in atmospheric pressure is
inversely proportional to water table level in confined aquifers. When
atmospheric pressure changes expressed in terms of a column of water, the
ratio of water level change to pressure change expresses the barometric
efficiency of an aquifer. Most observations yield values in the range of 20
to 75 %. The explanation of the phenomenon can be given by assuming
that aquifers one elastic body.
• Due to wind: Minor fluctuation of water levels is caused by wind blowing
over the top of wells. The effect is identical to the action of a vacuum
pump. As a gust of wind blows over the top of a casing, the air pressure
within the well is suddenly lowered and consequently the water level rises.
After the gust parries the air pressure in the well rises and water level falls.
• Due to rainfall: Annual ground water level fluctuation results from
seasonal variation of recharge from rainfall.
Due to ocean tides: In coastal aquifers in contact with the ocean fluctuation of ground
water level occurs in response to tides. If the sea level varies with simple harmonic motion,
a train of sinusoidal waves is propagated inland from the submarine outcrop of the aquifer.
With distance, inland amplitude of the waves decreases and the time lag of a given
maximal increases.
Due to Earth tides: Regular semidiurnal fluctuation occuring in small magnitude located a
great distance from oceans has been attributed to earth tides; resulting from the attraction
exerted on the earth’s crust by moon and to a lesser extent by sun. At times of new and full
moon the tide producing forces of the moon and sun act in the same direction, then the
ocean tides play a greater than average range. But when the moon is in the first and third
quarter, tide-producing forces of the sun and moon act perpendicular to one another,
causing ocean tides of smaller average range.
Due to external load: The elastic properties of an aquifer (confined) result in changes in
hydrostatic pressure when changes in loading occur Some of the best examples are
exhibited by wells located hear railroads where passing trains produce measurable
fluctuation of piezometric surface.
Due to Earthquakes: Observations reveals that earthquakes have a variety of effects on
ground water. Most spectacular are sudden rises and falls of ground water levels in wells,
changes in discharge of springs, appearance of new springs and eruption of water and mud
out of the ground. Earthquakes produce small fluctuations in the wells penetrating confined
aquifers. The earthquake waves travels at speeds of approximately 125 miles\minute so that
the fluctuations appear after little more than one hour even from the most distant
earthquakes.
 - Groundwater development and
Potential in India
• The total annual replenishable ground water resources of
the country have been assessed as 433 billion cubic meter
(BCM). Existing gross ground water draft as on March
2004 for all uses is 231 BCM per year.
• The stage of ground water development is about 58%.
The development of ground water in different areas of the
country has not been uniform.
• Highly intensive development of ground water in certain
areas in the country has resulted in over exploitation
leading to decline in the levels of ground water and sea
water intrusion in coastal areas.
• There is a continuous increase in dark and over-exploited
areas in the country.
• As per the latest assessment of ground water resources carried out jointly by the
Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) and the States, the assessment units are
categorized as 'over exploited'/'critical' and 'semi-critical' based on the stage of
ground water development and the long-term water level declining trend during
the past decade (1995-2004).
• Out of 5,723 assessment units (Blocks/Mandals/Talukas) in the country, 839 units
in various States have been categorized as 'over exploited', i.e., the annual ground
water extraction exceeds the annual replenishable resource.
• In addition, 226 units are 'critical', i.e., the stage of ground water development is
above 90 per cent and less than 100 per cent of annual replenishable resource
with significant decline in long term water level trend in both pre-monsoon and
post-monsoon period.
• There are 550 semi-critical units, where the stage of ground water development is
more than 70 per cent.
• List of these areas has been circulated to the State Pollution Control Boards and
the Ministry of Environment and Forests which refer the new industries/projects
falling in these areas to the Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA) for obtaining
clearance for ground water withdrawal.
• The CGWA has so far notified 43 over-exploited areas in the country for
regulation of ground water development and management.
• For more effective regulation of ground water development and
management, Advisory Committees under the Chairmanship of District
Collector/Deputy Commissioners with members drawn from various
organizations have been constituted which will render advice in matters
pertaining to regulation of ground water development and management.
• The CGWA have also notified 65 over-exploited areas in various States, for
registration of ground water abstraction structures, which showed a very
steep decline in ground water levels and which required action for
regulation.
• The CGWA has issued directions to the Chief Secretaries of all States
having over-exploited blocks to take all necessary measures to
promote/adopt artificial recharge to ground water/rain water harvesting.
 Regulation of Ground Water use
• At present CGWA is following Environment Protection Rules, 1986 to
carry out its activities.
• The Central Government in the Ministry of Water Resources has circulated
Model Bill to all thestate governments for enactment. So far the states of
Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Kerala, TamilNadu, West Bengal, Bihar, Himachal
Pradesh and Union Territories of Lakshadweep,Chandigarh and
Pondicherry have promulgated the state legislations. Other States are in the
process of formulation/promulgation.
• In response to an emerging crisis that threatens the life and
livelihoods of millions, the Centre, in 1970, framed a Model
Groundwater (Control and Regulation) Bill for adoption by the
states.
• Revised in 1972, 1996 and 2005, the Bill provides the framework to
regulate use of groundwater in India. Some states like Karnataka,
Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu have passed legislation based on this
model Bill.
The revised version of the central Bill proposes:
 Compulsory registration of bore well-owners.
 Compulsory permission for sinking a new borewell.
 Creation of a groundwater regulatory body.
 Restrictions on the depth of borewells.
 Establishment of protection zones around sources of drinking water.
The Bill mandates:
 Periodical reassessments of groundwater potential on a
scientific basis, considering quality of water available and
economic viability.
 Regulation of exploitation of groundwater sources so that
extraction does not exceed recharge.
 Development of groundwater projects to augment
supplies.
 Integrated and coordinated development of surface water
and groundwater so that they are used conjunctively.
 Prevention of over-exploitation of groundwater near the
coast to stop the ingress of seawater.
NORMS OF GROUND WATER RESOURCE ESTIMATION
COMMITTEE (GEC)