Water Treatment - 1

Water Treatment
• Objective: The objective of water treatment is, therefore, is remove
dissolved and undissolved substances and disease causing pathogens by
standard water treatment methods. The treated water should meet the
drinking water standards. Such standards are given by various
international agencies like the World Health Organisation
(WHO),Phillipine standard for drinking water.
• Water Treatment: The treatment of raw water is done by various unit
operations (based on physical principles) and unit processes (based on
chemical and biological principles) in order to produce water which is
safe to drink and meets the safe drinking water standards
The following are used to describe drinking water quality

1. Physical: The Physical characteristics relate to the quality of water for

domestic use and are usually associated with the appearance of water, its color
or turbidity, temperature and in particular, taste and odor.
2. Chemical: The chemical characterization of drinking water includes the
identification of its components and their concentrations.
3. Microbiological: Microbiological agents are important to the public health
and may also be significant in modifying the physical characteristics of water.
4. Radiological: Radiological factors must be considered in areas where the
water may have come in contact with radioactive substances. The radioactivity
of the water is of public health concern.
PHYSICAL TREATMENT METHODS
• Heat Treatment - Boiling is one way to purify water of all pathogens.
Most experts feel that if the water reaches a rolling boil it is safe. A
few still hold out for maintaining the boiling for some length of time,
commonly 5 or 10 minutes, plus an extra minute for every lo00 feet of
elevation. One reason for the long period of boiling is to inactivate
bacterial spores (which can survive boiling), but these spore are
unlikely to be waterborne pathogens.
PHYSICAL TREATMENT METHODS
• Reverse Osmosis - Reverse osmosis forces water, under pressure,
through a membrane that is impermeable to most contaminants. The
membrane is somewhat better at rejecting salts than it is at rejecting
non-ionized weak acids and bases and smaller organic molecules
(molecular weight below 200). In the latter category are
undissociated weak organic acids, amines, phenols, chlorinated
hydrocarbons, some pesticides and low molecular weight alcohols.
Larger organic molecules and all pathogens are rejected.
PHYSICAL TREATMENT METHODS
• Distillation - Distillation is the evaporation and condensation of water
to purify water. Distillation has two disadvantages:
1) A large energy input is required and
2) If simple distillation is used, chemical contaminants with boiling
points below water will be condensed along with the water. Distillation
is most commonly used to remove dissolved minerals and salts from
water
PHYSICAL TREATMENT METHODS
• Microfilters - Microfilters are small-scale filters designed to remove
cysts, suspended solids, protozoa, and, in some cases, bacteria from
water. Most filters use a ceramic or fiber element that can be cleaned
to restore performance as the units are used. Most units and almost
all made for camping use a hand pump to force the water through the
filter.
PHYSICAL TREATMENT METHODS
• Slow Sand Filter - Slow sand filters pass water slowly through a bed of
sand. Pathogens and turbidity are removed by natural die-off,
biological action, and filtering. Typically the filter will consist of a layer
of sand, then a gravel layer in which the drain pipe is embedded. The
gravel doesn't touch the walls of the filter, so that water can't run
quickly down the wall of the filter and into the gravel.
PHYSICAL TREATMENT METHODS
• Activated Charcoal Filter - Activated charcoal filters water through
adsorption; chemicals and some heavy metals are attracted to the surface
of the charcoal, and are attached to it. Charcoal filters will filter some
pathogens, though they will quickly use up the filter adsorptive ability, and
can even contribute to contamination, as the charcoal provides an
excellent breeding ground for bacteria and algae. Some charcoal filters are
available impregnated with silver to prevent this, though current research
concludes that the bacteria growing on the filter are harmless, even if the
water wasn't disinfected before contacting the filter. Activated charcoal can
be used in conjunction with chemical treatment. The chemical (iodine or
chlorine) will lull the pathogens, while the carbon filter will remove the
treatment chemicals.
CHEMICAL TREATMENT
• Chlorine is familiar to most people as it is used to treat virtually all
water systems . Chlorine has a number of problems when used for field
treatment of water. When chlorine reacts with organic material, it
attaches itself to nitrogen containing compounds (ammonium ions and
amino acids), leaving less free chlorine to continue disinfection.
Carcinogenic trihalomethanes are also produced, though this is only a
problem with long-term exposure. Trihalomethanes can also be filtered
out with a charcoal filter, though it is more efficient to use the same
filter to remove organics before the water is chlorinated
CHEMICAL TREATMENT

• Iodine's use as a water purification method emerged after World War

2, when the U.S. military was looking for a replacement for Halazone
tablets. Iodine was found to be in many ways superior to chlorine for
use in treating small batches of water. Iodine is less sensitive to the
pH and organic content of water, and is effective in lower doses. Some
individuals are allergic to iodine, and there is some question about
long term use of iodine.
CHEMICAL TREATMENT
• Silver has been suggested by some for water treatment and may still be
available outside the U.S. Its use is currently out of favor due to the EPA's
establishment of a 50 ppb MCL (Maximum Contaminate Level) limit on silver
in drinking water. This limit is set to avoid argyrosis, a cosmetic blue/gray
staining of the skin, eyes, and mucous membranes. As the disease requires a
net accumulation of 1 g of silver in the body, one expert calculated that you
could drink water treated at 50 ppb for 27 years before accumulating 1 g.
Silver has only be proven to be effective against bacteria and protozoan cysts,
though it is quite likely also effective against viruses. Silver can be used in the
form of a silver salt, commonly silver nitrate, a colloidal suspension, or a bed
of metallic silver. Electrolysis can also be used to add metallic silver to a
solution.
CHEMICAL TREATMENT
• POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE is no longer commonly used in the
developed world to kill pathogens It is much weaker than the other
alternatives cited, more expensive, and leaves a objectionable pink or
brown color. Still, some underdeveloped countries rely on it,
especially in home-use applications. If it must be used, 1 gram per
liter would probably be sufficient against bacteria and viruses (no
data is available on it effectiveness against protozoan cysts)
CHEMICAL TREATMENT

• Hydrogen Peroxide can be used to purify water if nothing else is

available. Studies have shown of 99 percent inactivation of rhinovirus
with a 1.5% solution in 24 minutes. Hydrogen Peroxide is
moreeffective against bacteria, though Fe+' or CuC2 needs to be
present as a catalyst to get a reasonable concentration-time product.
• Surface water generally needs to be filtered and disinfected while
ground water needs removal of hardness (caused by calcium and
magnesium) before disinfection. The following flowsheet will explain
the water treatment methods.

• Flowsheet of a typical water treatment plant. For ground water, in

addition
• softeninFlowsheet of a typical water treatment plant. For ground
water, in addition

Typical water treatment plant for ground water in addition softening by

addition of lime/soda ash
• The raw water is screened by passing it through bar racks and screens
to retain debris consisting of plant materials, plastics, rags and other
floating materials. The raw water is then mixed with chemicals which
help the suspended solids to coagulate into larger particles. Gentle
mixing the coagulant with water encourages formation of floc, the
process is called flocculation.

• Water is moved slowly in a larger flow area to facilitate the floc to

settle. This process is called sedimentation. The settled material
called sludge is removed and disposed off. The water is passed
through sand filter. After the whole process almost all the suspended
solids are removed. Most of the colour is also removed. However,
some pathogenic organisms like bacteria remain in water, which are
killed by disinfection
• Disinfection is generally done by chlorination, by using chlorine
gas, sodium hypochlorite or calcium hypochlorite. Chlorination
although kills most of the bacteria is, however, less effective
against Giardia lamblia (a pathogen). Another disadvantage of
chlorination is that it forms cancer causing products when
chlorine combines with organic matter in water.
• Better methods of disinfection include use of UV-light or
ozonation (use of ozone as a strong oxidizing agent).
• Ultraviolet light has been known to kill pathogens for a long time. A
low pressure mercury bulb emits between 30 to 90 % of its energy at
a wave length of 253.7 nm, right in the middle of the UV band. If
water is exposed to enough light, pathogens will be killed. The
problem is that some pathogens are hundreds of times less sensitive
to UV light than others. The least sensitive pathogens to UV are
protozoan cysts. Several studies show that Giardia will not be
destroyed by many commercial UV treatment units.
• Coagulation process to aid in the removal of turbidity. In this
economical process, a coagulating agent such as aluminum sulphate
is fed into the water. After rapid mixing, the coagulating agent forms a
"floc" generally in the form of a gelatinous precipitate. This floc gives
the appearance of a soft, gentle snowfall. A settling period is then
needed to allow the floc to fall gently through the water.

• Color is reduced or removed from water through the use of

coagulation, settling and filtration techniques. Aluminum sulphate is
the most widely used coagulant for this purpose. Superchlorination,
activated carbon filters and potassium permanganate have been used
with varying degrees of success in removing color.
COAGULATION/FLOCCULATIONA GENTS
• While flocculation doesn't kill pathogens, it will reduce their levels along with removing
particles that could shield the pathogens from chemical or thermal destruction, and
organic matter that could tie up chlorine added for purification. 60-98% of coliform
bacteria, 65-99% of viruses, and 60-90% of giardia will be removed from the water, along
with organic matter and heavy metals.

• Some of the advantages of coagulatiod/flocculation can be obtained by allowing the

particles to settle out of the water with time (sedimentation), but it will take a whle for
them to do so. Adding coagulation chemicals, such as alum, will increase the rate at
which the suspended particles settle out by combining many smaller particles into larger
floc, which will settle out faster. The usual dose for alum is 10-30 mg/liter of water. Ths
dose must be rapidly mixed with the water, then the water must be agitated for 5
minutes to encourage the particles to form flocs. After this at least 30 minutes of settling
time is need for the flocs to fall to the bottom, and them the clear water above the flocs
may be poured off.
Classification water organisms either as
members of the plant or animal kingdom
• Algae - These organisms are found throughout the world. They
constitute the chief group of aquatic plants both in sea and fresh water.
Algae range in size from microscopic organisms to giant seaweeds
several hundred feet in length. They contain chlorophyll and other
pigments which give them a variety of colors. They manufacture their
food by photosynthesis. Algae thrive well in stagnant surface waters
especially during the warm weather. Algae gives water fishy, grassy and
other even more objectionable odors. While algae-laden waters are
repulsive to man, animals will drink them and the presence of blue-
green algae has been known to cause the death of cattle drinking this
water.
Classification water organisms either as
members of the plant or animal kingdom

• Diatoms - Diatoms belong to the algae family. Some exist as single

cells; others are found as groups or colonies. More than 15,000
forms of diatoms are known to exist. Diatoms have silica-impregnated
cell walls. At time they release essential oils which give water a fishy
taste.
Classification water organisms either as
members of the plant or animal kingdom

• Fungi - Fungi are another large group of plant forms. Like the algae,
fungi have many varieties included among these are molds and
bacteria. Fungi are not able to manufacture their own food. They exist
by feeding on living things or on dead organic matter. Depending on
their individual characteristics, they are usually colorless but may vary
in this respect
Classification water organisms either as
members of the plant or animal kingdom
• Molds - One important category of fungi is molds. This group of fungi
feeds entirely on organic matter. They decompose carbohydrates such
as sugars, starches and fats as well as proteins and other substances.
They thrive ideally in water that has a temperature range of
approximately 80 degrees to 100 "F. The presence of molds is
generally a strong indicator of heavy pollution of water.
Classification water organisms either as
members of the plant or animal kingdom
• Bacteria - Bacteria are another important class of fungi. Again
numerous smaller groupings are possible. Among the higher
organisms in this group are the iron, manganese and sulphur bacteria.
These higher bacteria gain their energy from the oxidation of simple
organic substances. Lower forms of bacteria can be grouped as those
that are helpful and those that are harmful to man. Those harmful to
man are mainly the disease-producing organisms. Helpful organisms
hasten the process of decomposing organic matter and by feeding on
waste material; they aid in the purifying of water
Classification water organisms either as
members of the plant or animal kingdom
• Worms - There are three types of worms found in water. For the most
part, they dwell in the bed of the material at the bottom of lakes and
streams. There they do important work as scavengers. The rotifiers
are the only organisms in this category at or near the surface. They
live primarily in stagnant fresh water. The eggs and larvae of various
intestinal worms found in man and warm-blooded animals pollute the
water at times. They do not generally cause widespread infection for
several reasons. They are relatively few in number and are so large
they can be filtered out of water with comparative ease
Classification water organisms either as
members of the plant or animal kingdom
• Protozoa - Another basic classification in the animal kingdom is that
group of microscopic animals known as protozoa. These one-celled
organisms live mainly water either at or near the surface or at great
depths in the oceans. Many live as parasites in the bodies of man and
animals. Sometimes, drlnking water becomes infested with certain
protozoa which are not disease-producing . When present, they give
the water a fishy taste and odor. Some protozoa are aerobic, that is,
they exist only where free oxygen is available. Some exist where no
free oxygen is available. Others can either be aerobic or anaerobic
Classification water organisms either as
members of the plant or animal kingdom
• Nematodes - Nematodes belong to the worm family. They have long,
cylindrical bodies which have no internal segments. Interestingly enough,
those nematodes which are found in the bodies of men and warm-blooded
animals are large enough to be visible to the naked eye; those living in
fresh water or the soil are microscopic. Nematodes can be a problem in
drinking water because they impart objectionable tastes and odors to
water. They are also under suspicion of being carriers of the type of
disease-bearing bacteria found in the intestines of warmblooded animals
though studies show that possibility is somewhat remote. Nematodes are
apt to be found in municipal waters derived from surface supplies
Classification water organisms either as
members of the plant or animal kingdom
• Viruses - As yet not too well understood is that group of parasitic
forms known as viruses. Too small to be seen under a microscope,
viruses are capable of causing disease in both plants and animals.
Viruses can pass through porcelain filters that are capable of
screening out bacteria. At least one virus that produces infectious
hepatitis is water born. Drinking water contaminated with this virus is
hazardous.
• Identified organisms that indicate possible contamination. These indicator
organisms are the coliform bacteria. Study has proved that these coliform
bacteria indicate the presence of human or animal wastes in water.
Coliform bacteria naturally exist in the intestines of humansand certain
animals. Thus, the presence of these bacteria in water is accepted proof
that the water has been contaminated by human or animal wastes.
Although such water may contain no pathogens, an infected person, animal
or a carrier of disease, could add pathogens at any moment. Thus,
immediate corrective action must be taken. The presence of coliform
bacteria shows water is contaminated by human wastes and is potentially
contaminated with pathogens