Chapter

11
Conductors and Insulators

Topics Covered in Chapter 11

11-1: Function of the Conductor
11-2: Standard Wire Gage Sizes
11-3: Types of Wire Conductors
11-4: Connectors
11-5: Printed Wiring
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 T&D System
 The demand for energy increases over time as
populations grow and create a need for more homes,
factories, office buildings, consumer products, and
public infrastructure. To meet this demand, electricity
must not only be produced, but also transmitted to
areas where people live.

Like any other industry, the electric power system may

be thought of as consisting of three main divisions:
 1. Manufacture, production or generation,
cogeneration,
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
 The grid of today
 Transmission network
 To transport the electric
power from the point of
generation to the load
centers
 All above a certain voltage
 (Sub transmission)
 Distribution network
 To distribute the electric
power among the consumers
 Below a certain voltage
 Planning and Design
 New transmission and distribution systems are
planned and designed by a variety of
professionals. Transmission planning engineers use
information collected by utility forecasters to identify
when and where more power lines are needed for the
system to operate reliably. Siting, land rights, and
permitting agents work with government agencies and
landowners to acquire land and the rights to use
land. CAD designers design the layouts for new
transmission and distribution lines and facilities.
 Construction and Maintenance

 Crews of line workers and utility workers build and fix

transmission and distribution lines. Substation
mechanics build and maintain the substations that
step power down from power lines to be distributed
for residential and commercial use. Millwrights help
install and secure large
equipment. Machinists fabricate special tools that are
needed to construct and operate facilities.
 Operation and Control
 The transmission of electricity across the grid from
generation plants to distribution facilities is done in
control rooms by system control operators. Reliability
coordinators ensure that enough energy is available
from generating facilities and elsewhere in the grid to
meet demand. They also respond to and help resolve
emergency conditions. When power outages
occur, outage coordination dispatchers coordinate the
response and send workers out to fix the problems.
 Safety and Regulations

 Electricity is an essential component to modern life,

but is also very dangerous. There are many
regulations that govern the safety and reliability of
power. Safety and occupational health
coordinators coordinate safety programs. Training and
development specialists lead classes that teach
employees how to do their jobs safely and
responsibly.
 The distribution system is
particularly important to an
electrical utility for two reasons
 it’s close proximity to the customers
 it’s high cost of investment
Mainly distribution systems are
two types
 Primary Distribution (33KV/11KV)
 Secondary Distribution (11KV/440V)

Household electricity is alternating current (AC)

Household voltages are typically 120V or 240V
Distribution System Considerations
design of distribution systems,
three broad classifications of
choices need to be considered:

• The type of electric system: dc or ac,

and if ac, single- phase or poly phase.
• The type of delivery system: radial,
loop, or network. Radial systems
include duplicate and throw over
systems.
• The type of construction: overhead or
underground.
 The type of electric system: dc or ac, and if ac,
single- phase or poly phase.
 The type of delivery system: radial, loop, or
network. Radial systems include duplicate and
throw over systems.
 The type of construction: overhead or
underground.
 Types of Delivery Systems:

 Primary distribution
 Secondary distribution
 Primary distribution

 which carries the load at higher than utilization

voltages from the substation (or other source)to the
point where the voltage is stepped down to the value
at which the energy is utilized by the consumer.
 Primary distribution systems
include three basic types:
 Radial systems, including duplicate and throwover
systems
 Loop systems, including both open and closed
loops
 Primary network systems
 Secondary distribution

 which includes that part of the system operating at

utilization voltages, up to the meter at the
consumer’s premises.
 The maximum generation voltage in advanced
countries is 33 kV while that in India is 11 kV. The
amount of power that has to be transmitted through
transmission lines is very large and if this power is
transmitted at 11kV the line current and power loss
will be large. There fore the voltage is stepped to a
higher level by using step-up transformers located
in sub-stations.
 Distribution system is consist of:
 Substation
 Utility or Distribution Pole
 Primary wires
 Cross arm
 Insulators
 Lighting Arrestor
 Cut out
 Transformer
 Neutral wire
 Secondary wire
 Grounding
 Guy wire
Substation
 Substation
 A substation is a part of an
electrical generation, transmission,
and distribution system.
 Substations may be owned and operated by an
electrical utility, or may be owned by a large industrial
or commercial customer.
Utility pole
 Utility pole
 A utility pole is a column or post used to
support overhead power lines and various other public
utilities, such as cable, fibre optic cable, and related
equipment such as transformers and street lights.
 Most utility poles are made of wood, pressure-treated
with some type of preservative for protection against
rot, fungi and insects. Southern yellow pine is the most
widely used species in the United States; however,
many species of long straight trees are used to make
utility poles, including Douglas-fir, Jack pine, lodge
pole pine, western red cedar, and Pacific silver fir.
 Cross arm
 The woods most commonly used for crossarms are
Douglas Fir or Longleaf Southern Pine because of
their straight grain and durability. The top surface of
the arm is rounded so that rain or melting snow and
ice will run off easily. The usual cross-sectional
dimensions for distribution crossarms are 3-1/2 inches
by 4-1/2 inches; their length depending on the number
and spacing of the pins.
Cross arm
Insulator
 Insulator
 An electrical insulator is a material whose
internal electric charges do not flow freely, and
therefore make it very hard to conduct an electric
current under the influence of an electric field. A
perfect insulator does not exist, but some materials
such as glass, paper and Teflon, which have
high resistivity, are very good electrical insulators.
 Types of Insulators
 Pin type insulator
 Suspension insulator
 Strain insulator
 Shackle insulator
 Line post insulator
 Station post insulator
 Cut-out
 Pin type insulator
 As the name suggests, the pin type insulator is
mounted on a pin on the cross-arm on the pole. There
is a groove on the upper end of the insulator. The
conductor passes through this groove and is tied to
the insulator with annealed wire of the same material
as the conductor. Pin type insulators are used for
transmission and distribution of electric power at
voltages up to 33 kV. Beyond operating voltage of 33
kV, the pin type insulators become too bulky and
hence uneconomical.
Pin type insulator
 Suspension insulator
 For voltages greater than 33 kV, it is a usual practice
to use suspension type insulators shown in Figure.
Consist of a number of porcelain discs connected in
series by metal links in the form of a string. The
conductor is suspended at the bottom end of this
string while the other end of the string is secured to
the cross-arm of the tower. The number of disc units
used depends on the voltage.
Suspension insulator
 Strain insulator
 A dead end or anchor pole or tower is used where a
straight section of line ends, or angles off in another
direction. These poles must withstand the lateral
(horizontal) tension of the long straight section of wire.
In order to support this lateral load, strain insulators
are used. For low voltage lines (less than 11 kV),
shackle insulators are used as strain insulators.
However, for high voltage transmission lines, strings of
cap-and-pin (disc) insulators are used, attached to the
crossarm in a horizontal direction.
Strain Insulator
 Shackle insulator
 In early days, the shackle insulators were used as
strain insulators. But now a day, they are frequently
used for low voltage distribution lines. Such insulators
can be used either in a horizontal position or in a
vertical position. They can be directly fixed to the pole
with a bolt or to the cross arm.
Shackle insulator
 Conductor
 a conductor is an object or type of material that
permits the flow of electrical current in one or more
directions. For example, a wire is an electrical
conductor that can carry electricity along its length.
Conductor
 Lightning Arresters
 A lightning arrester is a device used on electrical
power systems and telecommunications systems to
protect the insulation and conductors of the system
from the damaging effects of lightning. The typical
lightning arrester has a high-voltage terminal and a
ground terminal. When a lightning surge (or switching
surge, which is very similar) travels along the power
line to the arrester, the current from the surge is
diverted through the arrestor, in most cases to earth.
Lightning Arresters
 Wire Sizes
 In the United States, it is common practice to indicate
wire sizes by gage numbers. The source of these
numbers for electrical wire is the American Wire Gage
(AWG) (otherwise known as the Brown & Sharpe
Gage). A small wire is designated by a large number
and a large wire by a small number
American Standard Wire Gage
(AWG)
American Standard Wire Gage
(AWG)
 Cut out
 a fuse cutout or cut-out fuse is a combination of
a fuse and a switch, used in primary overhead feeder
lines and taps to protect distribution
transformers from current surges and overloads. An
overcurrent caused by a fault in the transformer or
customer circuit will cause the fuse to melt,
disconnecting the transformer from the line. It can also
be opened manually by utility linemen standing on the
ground and using a long insulating stick called a "hot
stick".
Cut out
 Transformers
 transfers energy between two or more circuits
through electromagnetic induction.
transformers
 Phone/Cables Wires
 These wires were typically copper,
although aluminium has also been used, and were
carried in balanced pairs separated by about 25 cm
(10") on poles above the ground, and later as twisted
pair cables. Modern lines may run underground, and
may carry analog or digital signals to the exchange, or
may have a device that converts the analog signal to
digital for transmission on a carrier system.
 Grounding
 Electrical circuits may be connected to ground (earth)
for several reasons. In mains powered equipment,
exposed metal parts are connected to ground to
prevent user contact with dangerous voltage
if electrical insulation fails. Connections to ground limit
the build-up of static electricity when handling
flammable products or electrostatic-sensitive devices.
 Guy wire
 A guy-wire or guy-rope, also known as simply a guy,
is a tensioned cable designed to add stability to a free-
standing structure. They are used commonly in ship
masts, radio masts, wind turbines, utility poles, fire
service extension ladders used in church raises
and tents.
Guy wire
Guy wire
 Overhead Power Line
 An overhead power line is a structure used in electric
power transmission and distribution to transmit
electrical energy along large distances. It consists of
one or more conductors (commonly multiples of three)
suspended by towers or utility poles. Since most of
the insulation is provided by air, overhead power lines
are generally the lowest-cost method of power
transmission for large quantities of electric energy.
Overhead Power Line
 Overhead power transmission lines
are classified in the electrical power
industry by the range of voltages:
 Low voltage (LV) – less than 1000 volts, used for
connection between a residential or small
commercial customer and the utility.
 Medium voltage (MV; distribution) – between 1000
volts (1 kV) and to about 33 kV, used for
distribution in urban and rural areas.
 High voltage (HV; subtransmission less than
100 kV; subtransmission or transmission at voltage
such as 115 kV and 138 kV), used for sub-
transmission and transmission of bulk quantities of
electric power and connection to very large
consumers.
 Extra high voltage (EHV; transmission) – over 230
kV, up to about 800 kV, used for long distance,
very high power transmission.
 Ultra high voltage (UHV) – higher than 800 kV.
 Underground wires
 Undergrounding refers to the replacement
of overhead cables providing electrical
power or telecommunications, with underground
cables.
 Underground cables take up less right-of-way than
overhead lines, have lower visibility, and are less
affected by bad weather. However, costs of insulated
cable and excavation are much higher than overhead
construction. Faults in buried transmission lines take
longer to locate and repair.
Underground wires
 A RELIABILITY TEST SYSTEM FOR EDUCATIONAL
PURPOSES
- BASIC DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM DATA AND RESULTS

 It describes an electrical distribution system for use in

teaching power system reliability evaluation. It
includes all the main elements found in practical
systems. However, it is sufficiently small that students
can analyze it using hand calculations and hence fully
understand reliability models and evaluation
techniques. The paper contains all the data needed to
perform basic reliability analyses. It also contains the
basic results for a range of case studies and
alternative design/operating configurations.
 IEEE Application of
Probability Methods (APM)
 Subcommittee published a Reliability Test System
(RTS) in 1979 .This has proved to be a valuable and
consistent reference source for copying alternative
techniques and computer programs. It has been used
extensively in recent years in reliability assessment of
generation systems and in composite systems by
utilities, consultants and universities. Its major
advantage is that it provides a consistent set of data,
since extended in Refs [4,5], enabling a wide range of
techniques and applications to be much more easily
compared than previously possible. It is sufficiently
large that practical factors can be realistically modeled
and assessed but also sufficiently small that the effect
of sensitivity studies can be easily identified. The
 DESCRIPTION OF THE DISTRIBUTION
NETWORKS
 The RBTS has 5 load bus bars (BUS2-BUS6).
Two of these bus bars (BUS2 and BUS4) were
selected and distribution networks designed for
each. BUS2 has generation associated with it
and BUS4 does not. This permits the effects
and differences caused by the generation and
transmission system on the overall load point
indices to be seen. The peak loads defined in
the RBTS for different customer types are
shown in Table 1.
 SYSTEM STUDIES
 The studies performed include:

11kV feeders. These studies consider the 11kV

feeders
only and ignore any failures in the 33kV system, the
33/11kV substation and the 11kV breakers. They
assume the 11kV source breaker operates successfully
when required, disconnects are opened whenever
possible to isolate a fault, and the supply restored to as
many load points as possible using appropriate
disconnects and the alternative supply if available.
33kV system. These studies evaluate the
reliability indices at the 11k V supply point
busbars. They ignore any failures on the
incoming 33kV supply circuits. They include the
effect of passive and active failures [8] on all
components from the 33kV busbars down to the
11kV supply point busbars together with active
failures on the outgoing 11kV feeder breakers.
This paper has presented an extension to the
EUBTS by providing all the basic data for
teaching reliability assessment of distribution
systems. All the networks, 33kV and 11kV, can
be analyzed using hand calculations, permitting
full understanding and use of the basic models
and evaluation techniques. Students can then
either use existing computer programs or
develop their own in order to analyze more
practical systems and to perform an increasing
number of sensitivity studies. A selected
number of results are included in this paper in
order to give confidence to students in their
endeavors. These should first be repeated at
the initial stage of the teaching program. They
 Topics Covered in Chapter 11
 11-6: Switches
 11-7: Fuses
 11-8: Wire Resistance
 11-9: Temperature Coefficient of Resistance
 11-10: Ion Current in Liquids and Gases
 11-11: Insulators
 11-12: Troubleshooting Hints for Wires and
Connectors
11-1: Function of the Conductor
 The main function of a conductor is to provide a
pathway between a voltage source and a load with
minimum IR voltage drop.
 Large diameter wire is needed in high current circuits.
The larger the diameter, the lower the resistance.
 However, the resistance of a wire increases as its
length increases.
 The resistance of pure metals increases with
temperature.
 Ideal conductors have no resistance.
 11-1: Function of the Conductor
Conductors will use little power (0.06 W)
which allows 99.94 W for the bulb.

Fig. 11-1: The conductors should have minimum resistance to light the bulb with full brilliance. (a)
Wiring diagram. (b) Schematic diagram. R1 and R2 represent the very small resistance of the wire
conductors.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 11-2: Standard Wire Gage Sizes

11-2: Standard Wire Gage Sizes
 Wire Size
Insulation

#22 wire
0.02535 inches

A mil is 0.001 inches.

0.02535
Diameter in mils = = 25.35
0.001
Circular mil area = [Diameter in mils]2 = 25.352 = 643
 11-2: Standard Wire Gage Sizes
 Wire Size Gage CMA
 The circular area of the wire doubles for
17 2048
every three gage sizes.
18 1624
 # 19 is three gages larger than # 22
and has approximately twice the circular 19 1288
mil area. This is always the case when
the gage number is decreased by 3. 20 1022

21 810

22 643
 11-2: Standard Wire Gage Sizes
 What is the diameter of a 0000 AWG solid wire in
mils?
 Note: A 0000 AWG solid wire is defined to have a
diameter of 0.46 in.
 What is the diameter of a wire that has a cross section
of 250 kcmil?
 Note: Circular mil is used to define wire sizes larger
than 0000 AWG.
 Note: 1,000 cmil = 1 kcmil
11-3: Types of Wire Conductors
 Most wire conductors are copper. The wire may be
solid or stranded.
 Solid wire is made of one conductor.
 If bent or flexed repeatedly, it may break.
 It is typically used in applications not subject to repeated
stresses, such as house wiring.
 Stranded wire is made up of multiple strands of wire
braided together.
 It is more resilient than solid wire.
 It is typically used in applications like telephone and extension
cords, and in speaker wire.
11-3: Types of Wire Conductors
 Two or more conductors in a common covering form a
cable.
 Each wire is insulated from the others.
 Cables typically consist of multiple conductors, color-
coded for identification.
 Constant spacing between two conductors through the
entire length of the cable provides a transmission line.
 Coaxial cable, typically used for cable television
connections, is one example.
 11-4: Connectors

Fig. 11-6: Common types of connectors for wire conductors. (a) Spade lug. (b) Alligator clip.
(c) Double banana-pin plug. (d) Terminal strip.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 11-4: Connectors

Fig. 11-6 (continued): Common types of connectors for wire conductors. (e) RCA-type plug for
audio cables. (f) Phone plug. (g) F-type plug for cable TV. (h) Multiple-pin connector plug. (i)
Spring-loaded metal hook as grabber for temporary connection in testing circuits.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 11-5: Printed Wiring
 Most electronic circuits are mounted on a plastic or
fiberglass insulating board with printed wiring.
 The components, such as resistors, coils,
capacitors, etc., are on one side.
 The other side has the conducting paths printed on
the board with silver and copper, rather than using
wire.
 Use small iron (25-W rating) for desoldering to
prevent wiring lift off
 Use desoldering braid to remove solder from PCB

Fig. 11-7: Printed wiring board. (a) Component side with

resistors, capacitors, and transistors. (b) Side with printed
wiring for the circuit.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 11-6: Switches
 A switch allows you to turn current in a circuit on and
off.
 All switches have a current rating and a voltage rating.
 The current rating indicates the maximum allowable
current the switch can carry when it is closed.
 The voltage rating indicates the maximum voltage that
can be applied safely across the open contacts without
internal arcing.
 11-6: Switches

Fig. 11-8: Series switch used to open or close a circuit. (a) With the switch closed, current flows
to light the bulb. The voltage drop across the closed switch is 0 V. (b) With the switch open, the
light is off. The voltage drop across the open switch is 12 V.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 11-6: Switches
 Pole refers to the number of completely isolated circuits
that can be controlled by a switch.
 Throw refers to the number of closed contact positions
that exist per pole.
 SPST: single-pole, single-throw
 DPDT: double-pole, double-throw
 SPDT: single-pole, double-throw
 DPST: double-pole, single-throw
 11-6: Switches

Fig. 11-9: Switches. (a) Single-pole, single-throw (SPST). (b) Single-pole, double-throw
(SPDT). (c) Double-pole, single-throw (DPST). (d) Double-pole, double-throw (DPDT).
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 11-6: Switches
 Switch Applications

Fig. 11-10: Switch applications. (a) SPDT

switch used to switch a 12-V source
between two different loads. (b) DPST
switch controlling two completely isolated
circuits simultaneously. (c) DPDT switch
used to reverse the polarity of voltage
across a dc motor.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 11-7: Fuses
 A fuse protects the circuit components against
excessive current.
 Excessive current melts the fuse element, blows the
fuse, and opens the series circuit before damage can
occur to the components or wiring.
 Slow-blow fuses are designed to open only on a
continued overload, such as a short circuit, rather than
a temporary current surge.
 11-7: Fuses
 When measured with an ohmmeter, a good fuse has
practically zero resistance. An open fuse reads infinite
ohms.

 When measured with a voltmeter, a good fuse has zero

volts across its two terminals. If there is significant
voltage across the fuse, it is open.
 11-7: Fuses

Fig. 11-18: When a fuse opens, the applied voltage is across the fuse terminals. (a) Circuit
closed with good fuse. Note schematic symbol for any type of fuse. (b) Fuse open.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 11-7: Fuses
 Sample Fuses
 11-7: Fuses
 Circuit Board Fuses
 11-8: Wire Resistance
 Wire Resistance
 Resistance is proportional to the length of the wire.
 The resistance of a conductor can be found by the
formula:
ρ = specific resistance of the conductor

R = ρ(l/A) cross-section of the wire

length of the wire

 11-8: Wire Resistance
 Specific Resistance
 Specific resistance = ρ = CMA [circular mil area] •Ω/ft
 Resistance of a conductor = R = ρ (length/CMA)

Material Gage CMA r

Find R for 1000 ft. of #18 cu
Aluminum 17 2048 17
R = ρ (length/CMA)
Copper 18 1624 10.4
R = 10.4 (1000/1624)
Iron 19 1288 58
R = 6.4 Ω
Nichrome 20 1022 676
Silver 21 810 9.8
Tungsten 22 643 33.8
 11-8: Wire Resistance
 Types of Resistance Wire
 Certain applications employing heating elements (e.g.,
toasters) require a wire with greater resistance than
common conductors.
 More resistance will generate power dissipated as heat,
without using excessive current.
 Resistance wire is the name used to describe wires
with greater R values than copper. Some examples of
resistance wire include tungsten, nickel, or alloys like
Nichrome.
 11-10: Ion Current in
Liquids and Gases
 Liquids and gases can conduct electric charges, just as
metals can.
 In solids like metals, the atoms cannot move among
each other. Each atom remains neutral while the drift of
free electrons conducts the charge.
 In liquids and gases, the atoms can move among each
other. The atoms therefore gain or lose electrons easily,
resulting in atoms that are no longer neutral.
 The charged atoms are called ions.
 11-10: Ion Current in
Liquids and Gases
 Ions are the electrical charge carriers in liquids and
gases.

 A negative ion is an atom that has an excess number

of electrons.

 A positive ion is an atom that is missing one or more

electrons.
 11-10: Ion Current in
Liquids and Gases
 Formation of Ions

Fig. 11-19: Formation of ions. (a) Normal sodium (Na) atom. (b) Positively charged ion indicated
as Na+, missing one free electron.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 11-10: Ion Current in
Liquids and Gases
 Ion Current
 As with electron flow, opposite ion charges attract and
like charges repel.
 The resultant motion of ions provides electric current
(ionization current).
 Ion charges are heavier than electron charges because
ions contain the atom’s nucleus. The amount of current
is determined by the rate at which the charge moves.
 11-10: Ion Current in
Liquids and Gases
 Ionization in Liquids
 Ions are formed in liquids when salts or acids are
dissolved in water, or when metals are immersed in acid
or alkaline solutions.
 Liquids that are good conductors because of ionization
are called electrolytes.
 11-11: Insulators
 Insulators have very high resistance (many megohms).
 Insulators can have one of two functions:
 To isolate conductors to eliminate conduction
between them.
 To store a charge when voltage is applied.
 Common insulator materials include:
 air and vacuum
 rubber and paper
 porcelain, and plastics
 Insulators are also called dielectrics, meaning that they
can store a charge.
 11-11: Insulators
 Every insulator has a point at which a high enough
voltage will cause an arc, breaking down its internal
structure and forcing it to conduct.

 Dielectric strength refers to the voltage breakdown

rating of a material. The higher the dielectric strength,
the better the insulator.
 11-11: Insulators

Table 11-4: Voltage Breakdown of Insulators

Material Dielectric Material Dielectric
Strength, V/mil Strength, V/mil
Air or vacuum 20 Paraffin wax 200-300
Bakelite 300-550 Phenol, molded 300-700

Fiber 150-180 Polystyrene 500-760

Glass 335-2000 Porcelain 40-150
Mica 600-1500 Rubber, hard 450
Paper 1250 Shellac 900
Paraffin oil 380
 11-11: Insulators
 Voltage Breakdown of Insulation Materials
 Power transmission lines can operate as high as 1
million volts.
 What is the length of the arc path?

1M
= 50,000 mils = 4.17 feet.
20

(dielectric strength of air)