MOTIVATION

ED 351
 Motivation

 The word Motivation derives from the Latin

word “Movere”. The Latin word “Movere”
means “To move”, “To drive” or “To drive
forward” etc.
 Motivation can be defined as stimulating,
inspiring and inducing the employees to
perform to their best capacity. Motivation is
a psychological term which means it cannot
be forced on employees.
 Cont……

 It comes automatically from inside the

employees as it is the willingness to do the
work. It is the set of forces that causes
people to engage in one behaviour rather
than more alternative behaviour.
 Motivation is the work of a manager who
performs to inspire, encourage and impel
people to take the required action.
 Cont…

 Motivation is often referred to as the

“dynamic of behavior”.
 The term ‘dynamic’ means energies or forces
which produce motion in physical bodies. In
psychology and administration, it means the
mental engaging force or motive that
activates the organism.
 Cont….

 Many people incorrectly view motivation as

a personal trait—that is, some have it and
others do not.
 Motivation is the result of the interaction
between the individual and the situation.
 CONT….

The 3 key elements of our definition are

intensity, direction, and persistence:
1. Intensity: Intensity is concerned with how
hard a person tries. This is the element most
of us focus on when we talk about motivation.
2. Direction: The direction is the orientation
that benefits the organization.
 CONT….

 3. Persistence: Persistence is a measure of

how long a person can maintain his or her
effort. Motivated individuals stay with a task
long enough to achieve their goals.
 Features of Motivation

 1. Motivation is a psychological
phenomenon. Motivation is an internal
feeling which means it cannot be forced on
employees.
 The internal feelings such as need, desire,
aspirations etc. influence human behavior to
behave in a particular manner. For example,
desire to have a new house, respect and
recognition etc.
 Cont….

 2. Motivation produces goal directed

behavior. Motivation induces people to
behave in such a manner so that they can
achieve their goal.
 Motivated person need no supervision or
direction. He will always work in desired
manner. For example of a person has a
motive to get promotion so he will work
efficiently to get promotion.
 Cont…

 3. Motivators can be positive as well as

negative.
 To motivate employees managers use
various motivators. Some motivators are
positive and some are negative few examples
of positive motivators are promotion,
increment, bonus, respect, recognition etc.
 CONT….

 if employee does not improve his

performance with positive motivators then
manager uses negative motivators such as
warning, issue o memo, demotion, stopping
increments etc. sometimes fear of negative
motivators also induces person to behave in
a desired manner.
 Cont…

 4. Motivation is a complex process.

Motivation is a complex and difficult task. In
order to motivate people a manager must
understand various types of human need.
Human needs are mental feelings which can
be measured accurately.
 If manager measures them accurately then
also every person uses different approaches
to satisfy his need.
 Cont….

 Some get satisfied with monetary incentives, some

with non-monetary, some with positive and some
with negative motivators. So it is not possible to
make generalization in motivation.
 5. Motivation is a dynamic and continuous process.
Human beings are ever-changing. Human needs are
unlimited and go on changing continuously.
Satisfaction of one need gives rise to another so
managers have to continuously perform the function
of motivation.
 Motivational Cycle

 Motivation cycle is a transition of states within an

organism that propels the organism toward the
satisfaction of a particular need, where motivation
itself is considered a hypothesized state.
 Psychologists use the concept of need to describe
the motivational properties of behavior. The state of
motivation is further comprised of four different
states, which takes place in an organism to drive him
towards each action.
 Cont….

 Each action is first initiated because of a

particular need. The need drives the person into
taking actions. Positive results, caused due to the
actions, further acts as an incentive motivating a
person towards the goal.
 But the individual can never stop after achieving a
certain goal, and this phenomenon continues on
and on. This phenomenon has been termed
as Motivational Cycle.
Motivational cycle
 Cont….

 1. Need: A need is lack or deficit of some

necessity. It’s a state of physical
deprivation that causes tension within an
organism.
 The tension caused when the organism is
deprived of basic necessities of life as food,
water, and sleep, causes the internal
environment of an organism to be
imbalanced.
 CONT….

 The imbalance caused by the need arouses

the organism to maintain its balance.
 For any goal directed behavior, need is the
first condition or stimulating factor.
 Cont….

 2. Drive: Need leads to drive, which is the second

step towards achieving goal. Drive can be defined as
the state of tension or arousal produced by need. The
drive can also be considered as the original source of
energy that activates an organism. For instance,
when an organism is hungry and/or thirsty, the
organism seeks to reduce this drive by eating and/or
drinking.
 Cont….

 Drive acts as a strong persistent stimulus to

push an organism towards its goal.
 It is the state of heightened tension leading
to restless activity and preparatory behavior.
 3. Incentive: The object of the environment
that activates, directs, and maintains
behavior is called incentive.
 Cont…..

 It can be anything as long as it has either

positive or negative value in motivating
behavior.
 The incentive theory rests on the assumption
that the behaving organism is well aware of his
actions and the consequences received as a
result. The theory also understands incentives
as the motivation, which a person has to
achieve any particular goal object. activity.
 Cont…..

 The motivated behavior is directed towards

incentive and getting closer to the incentive
provides satisfaction of the aroused drive.
 For example: behavior like eating food is an
incentive that reduces the drive of the
person caused by the need to fulfill his
hunger. The reduction of behavior then cuts
off and restores balance in an organism.
 Cont….

 According to Hilgard, the incentive is

something in the external environment that
satisfies the need and thus reduces the drive
through consummative
 4. Goal: The reduction of tension in the
body can be considered as the goal of any
motivated behavior. Let’s go back to the
example of a hungry man.
 Cont…

 A hungry man eats food, and his body

restores to a balanced condition.
 This then reduces the tension. This
reduction of tension as a result of an
energized activity is called goal. Once the
goal has been completed, the organism is
again ready for another goal-motivated
behavior.
 Cont….

 Goals might be both positive or negative.

Positive goals are the ones that an organism
tries to attain, such as sexual
companionship, food, victory etc. negative
goals are the ones that an organism tries to
escape from or avoid, such as embarrassing
situations, punishments.
 Cont…..

 These four steps continue on and on

throughout the life-course of an organism.
Because the needs are never ending, it leads
to drive, which then lead to incentive and
the goal.
 For Example: The motivational cycle of the
hungry man is over once when he eats and
the goal is satisfied.
 But, the cycle will restart once the man gets
hungry again. The cycle goes on and on only
to end at the demise of an organism, at
which point, the needs permanently stop.
 Motivational cycle means that behavior goes
on in a sequence. Often times, a single
motivated behavior can also fulfill multiple
needs.
 Motivation process

 Unsatisfiedneed. Motivation process begins

when there is an unsatisfied need in a human
being.
 Tension. The presence of unsatisfied need gives
him tension.
 Drive. This tension creates an urge of drive in the
human being an he starts looking for various
alternatives to satisfy the drive.
 Cont….

 Search Behavior. After searching for

alternatives the human being starts
behaving according to chosen option.
 Satisfied need. After behaving in a particular
manner for a long time then he evaluates
that whether the need is satisfied or not.
 Cont….

 Reduction of tension. After fulfilling the

need the human being gets satisfied and his
tension gets reduced.
 For example, if an employee develops a need
to earn more, this need will make him
restless and he will start thinking how to
satisfy his need.
 Cont….

 To satisfy his need he may think of working

hard in organization and get promotion so
he will start working hard.
 After sometime he will get incentives or
increments or promotion which will satisfy
his need.
Motivation process
 Types of motivation

 1. Achievement Motivation: It is the drive

to pursue and attain goals. An individual
with achievement motivation wishes to
achieve objectives and advance up on the
ladder of success.
 Here, accomplishment is important for its
own shake and not for the rewards that
accompany it. It is similar to ‘Kaizen’
approach of Japanese Management.
 CONT…

 2. Affiliation Motivation: It is a drive to

relate to people on a social basis. Persons
with affiliation motivation perform work
better when they are complimented for their
favorable attitudes and co-operation.
 Cont…

 3. Competence Motivation: It is the drive to

be good at something, allowing the
individual to perform high quality work.
 Competence motivated people seek job
mastery, take pride in developing and using
their problem-solving skills and strive to be
creative when confronted with obstacles.
They learn from their experience.
 Cont….

 4. Power Motivation: It is the drive to influence

people and change situations. Power motivated
people wish to create an impact on their
organization and are willing to take risks to do
so.
 5. Attitude Motivation: Attitude motivation is
how people think and feel. It is their self
confidence, their belief in themselves, their
attitude to life. It is how they feel about the
future and how they react to the past.
 Cont….

 6. Incentive Motivation: It is where a person

or a team reaps a reward from an activity. It
is “You do this and you get that”, attitude. It
is the types of awards and prizes that drive
people to work a little harder.
 7. Fear Motivation: Fear motivation
coercion’s a person to act against will. It is
instantaneous and gets the job done quickly.
It is helpful in the short run.
 Forms of motivation

 There are two forms of motivation, Intrinsic

and Extrinsic motivation. It's important to
understand that we are not all the same;
thus effectively motivating your employees
requires that you gain an understanding of
the different types of motivation.
 Such an understanding will enable you to
better categorize your team members and
apply the appropriate type of motivation.
 Cont….

 You will find each member different and each

member's motivational needs will be varied as well.
Some people respond best to intrinsic which means
"from within" and will meet any obligation of an area
of their passion.
 Quite the reverse, others will respond better to
extrinsic motivation which, in their world, provides
that difficult tasks can be dealt with provided there is
a reward upon completion of that task. Become an
expert in determining which type will work best with
which team members.
 Intrinsic Motivation

 Intrinsic motivation means that the individual's

motivational stimuli are coming from within.
 The individual has the desire to perform a
specific task, because its results are in
accordance with his belief system or fulfills a
desire and therefore importance is attached to
it. Our deep-rooted desires have the highest
motivational power. Below are some examples:
 CONT…..

 Acceptance: We all need to feel that we, as

well as our decisions, are accepted by our co-
workers.
 Curiosity: We all have the desire to be in the
know.
 Honor: We all need to respect the rules and
to be ethical.
 Independence: We all need to feel we are
unique.
 CONT…..

 Order: We all need to be organized.

 Power: We all have the desire to be able to
have influence.
 Social contact: We all need to have some
social interactions.
 Social Status: We all have the desire to feel
important.
 Extrinsic Motivation

 Extrinsic motivation means that the individual's

motivational stimuli are coming from outside. In
other words, our desires to perform a task are
controlled by an outside source.
 Note that even though the stimuli are coming from
outside, the result of performing the task will still
be rewarding for the individual performing the
task.
 CONT….

 Extrinsic motivation is external in nature.

The most well-known and the most debated
motivation is money. Below are some other
examples:
 Employee of the month award
 Benefit package
 Bonuses
 Organized activities
 Importance of Motivation

 1. Motivation helps to change from negative

attitude to positive attitude. Without
motivation the employees try to perform
minimum activities in the organization.
 But the motivation fills in the desire to
perform to their maximum level. All the
resources of the organization are of no use
unless and until the employees use these
resources. The motivated employees make
best use of the resources.
 Cont….

 2. Motivation improves performance level of

employees. The motivation improves the efficiency
level of employees which means the employees
start performing the job to the best of their ability
with minimum wastage of time and resources
because motivated employees always go for best
utilization of resources.
 The motivation bridges the gap between the ability
to work and willingness always improves
efficiency.
 Cont…..

 3. Help in achieving the organizational goals.

The motivated employees always try to
achieve the organizational goal and contribute
their best efforts for the realization of
organizational goal as they know with the
achievement of organizational goal only they
can achieve their personal goal.
 All the employees contribute their efforts in
one direction of accomplishment of goal.
 Cont….

 4. Motivation creates supportive work

environment. In motivation the relations
between superior and subordinates are
always improved. When the employees get
their need satisfied or get the recognition
and respect in the organization then they
always offer a supportive hand to
superiors. There is more co-operation and
co-ordination in the organization and all
the employees work with the team spirit.
 Cont…..

 5. Motivation helps the managers to introduce

changes. The motivated employees show less
resistance in accepting the changes according to
changes in the business environment because they
know if the changes are not implements in the
organization, not only the organization will lose by
this but the employees also will find it difficult to
get their needs fulfilled.
 Motivated employees are always supportive and
co-operative in accepting changes in the
organization.
 Cont…..

 6. Reduction in Employee Turnover. The

motivation creates confidence in the
employees to get their need satisfied in the
organization itself. They always select the
alternative to remain in the organization
and increase their earning rather than
leaving the organization and increasing
their earnings. With motivation employee
turnovers are less because the satisfied
employees never leave the job.
 Advantages to Management or
Organization
 Increase in the efficiency and productivity of
employees. Motivation ensures a high level
performance of employees.
 Better co-operation from employees and
cordial labor-management relations.
 Reduction in the rate of labor absenteeism
and turnover.
 Cont….

 Reduction in the wastage’s and industrial

accidents.
 Improvement in the morale of employees.
 Quick achievement of business/corporate
objectives and favorable corporate image.
 Advantages to Employees or Workers

 Employees get various monetary and non-

monetary facilities/benefits which provide
better life and welfare to them.
 Security of employment and other benefits
due to cordial relations with the
management.
 Job attraction and job satisfaction.
 Higher status and opportunities of
participation in management.
 Cont…

 Positive approach and outlook of employees

towards company, management and
superiors.
 Reduction in the rate of labour turnover
which is harmful to employees and
management.
 Better scope for improvement in knowledge
and skills of employees.
 Content theories

 These theories look for the factors inside

people that cause, sustain or stop behavior.
Their main focus are the needs that
motivate people.
 Some of the most well-known names
among the content theorists are Abraham
Maslow, Clayton P Alderfer, Federick
Herzberg and David C. McClelland.
 CONT….

 While the theories given by them have

proved helpful at understanding motivation,
they are still to be fully verified through
research.
 Still, these theories have immense value in
research related to motivation.
 The content theories mainly imply that
individuals are unique and may have unique
sources of motivation.
 Cont…..

 It would be useful for managers to

understand the sources of motivation for
each individual employee.
 The basis of the content theories is that
absence of motivating factors creates tension
that can trigger a negative behavioral
performance. These theories suggest that
when people do not get what they believe
they need, they try to satisfy these needs.
 Cont…..

 Specific needs can give rise to the desired

behavior. These needs should be identified.
 Rewards can satisfy individual needs.
Identifying these needs will help create an
impact through the motivational programs
that managers create.
 Performance can be optimized if proper
rewards are offered.
 Cont….

 However, it is important to ensure that the

awards we offer are proper.
 Needs can keep changing based on people’s
experiences and other factors. It is
important to design motivation programs to
satisfy the changing needs.
 Motivation theories

 We can distinguish between content and

processmotivation theories. Content theories
focus on WHAT, while process theories focus
on HOW human behaviour is motivated.
Content theories are the earliest theories of
motivation.
 Within the work environment they have had
the greatest impact on management practice
and policy, whilst within academic circles they
are the least accepted.
 Cont….

 Content theories are also called needs

theories: they try to identify what our needs
are and relate motivation to the fulfilling of
these needs.
 The content theories cannot entirely explain
what motivate or demotivate us. Process
theories are concerned with “how”
motivation occurs, and what kind of process
can influence our motivation.
 The main content theories are: Maslow’s
needs hierarchy, Alderfer’s ERG theory,
McClelland’s achievement motivation and
Herzberg’s two-factor theory.
 The main process theories are: Skinner’s
reinforcement theory, Victor Vroom's
expectancy theory, Adam’s equity theory and
Locke’s goal setting theory
 Cont…

 No single motivation theory explains all

aspects of people’s motives or lack of
motives.
 Each theoretical explanation can serve as the
basis for the development of techniques for
motivating.
FIGURE
1. Motivation Theories X and Y - McGregor

 In his 1960 management book, The Human

Side of Enterprise, Douglas McGregor made
his mark on the history of organizational
management and motivational psychology
when he proposed the two theories by which
managers perceive employee motivation.
 He referred to these opposing motivational
theories as Theory X and Theory Y.
 Theory X

 According to McGregor, Theory X leadership

assumes the following:
 Work is inherently distasteful to most people,
and they will attempt to avoid work whenever
possible.
 Most people are not ambitious, have little
desire for responsibility, and prefer to be
directed.
 Most people have little aptitude for creativity in
solving organizational problems.
 Cont…

 Each assumes that management's role is to

organize resources, including people, to best
benefit the company.
 However, beyond this commonality, they're
quite dissimilar.
 Motivation occurs only at the physiological
and security levels of Maslow's Needs
Heirarchy
 Cont….

 Most people are self-centered. As a result,

they must be closely controlled and often
coerced to achieve organizational objectives
 Most people resist change.
 Most people are gullible and unintelligent.
 Cont….

 Essentially, this theory assumes that the

primary source of most employee motivation
is monetary, with security as a strong
second.
 The Hard Approach and Soft Approach
 Under Theory X, management approaches
to motivation range from a hard approach to
a soft approach.
 Cont….

 The hard approach to motivation relies on

coercion, implicit threats, micromanagement,
and tight controls -- essentially an
environment of command and control.
 The soft approach, however, is to be
permissive and seek harmony in the hopes
that, in return, employees will cooperate
when asked. However, neither of these
extremes is optimal.
 Cont…

 The hard approach results in hostility,

purposely low-output, and extreme union
demands. The soft approach results in
increasing desire for greater reward in
exchange for diminishing work output.
 It would appear that the optimal approach
to human resource management would be
lie somewhere between these extremes.
 Cont…

 However, McGregor asserts that neither

approach is appropriate since the
foundation of Theory X are incorrect.
 The Problem with Theory X

 Drawing on Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs,

McGregor argues that a need, once satisfied, no
longer motivates.
 The company relies on monetary rewards and
benefits to satisfy employees' lower level needs.
 Once those needs have been satisfied, the
motivation is gone. Theory X management
styles, in fact, hinder the satisfaction of higher-
level needs.
 Cont…..

 Consequently, the only way that employees

can attempt to satisfy higher level needs at
work is to seek more compensation, so it is
quite predictable that they will focus on
monetary rewards.
 While money may not be the most effective
way to self-fulfillment, in a Theory X
environment it may be the only way.
 Cont…

 People will use work to satisfy their lower

needs, and seek to satisfy their higher needs
during their leisure time.
 Unfortunately, employees can be most
productive when their work goals align with
their higher level needs.
 Cont…

 McGregor makes the point that a command and

control environment is not effective because it relies
on lower needs for motivation, but in modern society
those needs are mostly satisfied and thus no longer
motivate.
 In this situation, one would expect employees to
dislike their work, avoid responsibility, have no
interest in organizational goals, resist change, etc.,
thus creating a self-fulfilling prophecy.
 Theory Y

 To McGregor, motivation seemed more

likely with Theory Y.
 The higher-level needs of esteem and self-
actualization are continuing needs in that
they are never completely satisfied.
 As such, it is these higher-level needs
through which employees can best be
motivated.
 Cont…

 In strong contrast, Theory Y leadership

makes the following general assumptions:
 •Work can be as natural as play if the
conditions are favorable.
 •People will be self-directed and creative to
meet their work and organizational
objectives if they are committed to them.
 Cont…

 People will be committed to their quality

and productivity objectives if rewards are in
place that address higher needs such as self-
fulfillment.
 • The capacity for creativity spreads
throughout organizations.
 • Most people can handle responsibility
because creativity and ingenuity are
common in the population.
 Cont…

 •Under these conditions, people will seek

responsibility.
 Under these assumptions, there is an
opportunity to align personal goals with
organizational goals by using the employee's
own need for fulfillment as the motivator.
McGregor stressed that Theory Y
management does not imply a soft
approach.
 Cont….

 McGregor recognized that some people may

not have reached the level of maturity
assumed by Theory Y and therefore may
need tighter controls that can be relaxed as
the employee develops.
 Applying Theory Y Management

 If Theory Y holds true, an organization can use

these principles of scientific management to
improve employee motivation:
 • Decentralization and Delegation - If firms
decentralize control and reduce the number of
levels of management, managers will have more
subordinates and consequently will be forced to
delegate some responsibility and decision
making to them.
 Cont…

 • Job Enlargement - Broadening the scope of

an employee's job adds variety and
opportunities to satisfy ego needs.
 Participative Management - Consulting
employees in the decision making process
taps their creative capacity and provides
them with some control over their work
environment.
 Cont…

 • Performance Appraisals - Having the

employee set objectives and participate in
the process of evaluating how well they were
met.
 If properly implemented, such an
environment would result in a high level of
motivation as employees work to satisfy
their higher level personal needs through
their jobs
 Maslow – hierarchy of needs

 This is the earliest and most widely known theory of

motivation, developed by Abraham Maslow (1943) in
the 1940s and 1950s. He hypothesized that within
every human being there exists a hierarchy of five
needs:
 This theory condenses needs into five basic categories.
Maslow ordered these needs in his hierarchy,
beginning with the basic psychological needs and
continuing through safety, belonging and love, esteem
and self-actualization.
 Cont…

 In his theory, the lowest unsatisfied need

becomes the dominant, or the most powerful
and significant need.
 The most dominant need activates an
individual to act to fulfil it.
 Satisfied needs do not motivate. Individual
pursues to seek a higher need when lower
needs are fulfilled.
 Cont…

 Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often shown

in the shape of a pyramid: basic needs at the
bottom and the most complex need (need
for self-actualization) at the top.
 Maslow himself has never drawn a pyramid
to describe these levels of our needs; but the
pyramid has become the most known way to
represent his hierarchy.
diagram
 Cont…

 1. Physiological needs (e.g. food, water,

shelter, sleep)
 It includes the most basic needs for humans
to survive, such as air, water and food.
Maslow emphasized, our body and mind
cannot function well if these requirements
are not fulfilled.
 These physiological needs are the most
dominant of all needs.
 Cont…

 So if someone is missing everything in

his/her life, probably the major motivation
would be to fulfil his/her physiological needs
rather than any others.
 A person who is lacking food, safety, love
(also sex) and esteem, would most probably
hunger for food (and also for money, salary
to buy food) than for anything else.
 Cont…

 If all the needs are unsatisfied, and the

organism is then overruled by the
physiological needs, all other needs may
turn into the background.
 All capacities are put into the attendance of
satisfying hunger. Any other things are
forgotten or got secondary importance.
 Cont…

 2. Safety and security (secure source of income,

a place to live, health and well-being)
 If the physiological needs are relatively well
contented, new needs will appear, the so called
safety needs.
 Safety needs refer to a person’s desire for
security or protection. Basically everything
looks less important than safety and protection
(the physiological needs even sometimes).
 Cont…

 The healthy and fortunate adults in our

culture are largely satisfied in their safety
needs.
 The peaceful, sure, safety and unwavering
society makes us feel in safety enough from
criminal assaults, murder, unbelievable
natural catastrophes, and so on. In that case
people no longer have any safety needs as
first-line motivators.
 Cont…

 Meeting with safety needs demonstrated as a

preference for insurance policies, saving
accounts or job security, etc., we think about
the lack of economic safety.
 Children have a greater need to feel safe.
That is the reason why this level is more
important for children.
 Cont…

 Safety and security needs include: Personal

security; Financial security; Health and well-
being; Safety mesh against accidents,
illnesses and their adverse impacts.
 To tell the truth, in real dangers and
traumas – like war, murder, natural
catastrophes, criminal assault, etc. -, the
needs for safety become an active, first-line
and dominant mobilizer of human beings.
 Cont…

 3. Belongingness and love (integration into

social groups, feel part of a community or a
group; affectionate relationships)
 If both the physiological and the safety
needs are fulfilled, the affection, love and
belongingness needs come into prominence.
 Cont…

 Maslow claimed people need to belong and

accepted among their social groups. Group size
does not mean anything: social groups can be
large or small.
 People need to love and be loved – both
sexually and non-sexually – by others.
Depending on the power and pressure of the
peer group, this need for belonging may
overbear the physiological and security needs.
 Cont….

 Love needs involve giving and receiving

affections (love is not synonymous with sex –
sex is a physiological need). When they are
unsatisfied, a person will immediately
eliminate the lack of friends, peers and partner.
 Many people suffer from social nervousness,
loneliness, social isolation and also clinical
depression because of the lack of this love or
belongingness factor.
 Cont….

 4. Esteem (respect for a person as a useful,

honourable human being)
 In our society most people long for a stable and high
valuation of themselves, for the esteem of others and
for self-respect or self-esteem.
 Esteem means being valued, respected and
appreciated by others. Humans need to feel to be
valued, such as being useful and necessary in the
world. People with low self-esteem often need
respect from others.
 Cont….

 Maslow divided two types of esteem needs: a

‘lower’ version and a ‘higher’ version. The
‘lower’ version of esteem is the need for
respect from others: for example attention,
prestige, status and loving their opinion. The
‘higher’ version is the need for self-respect:
for example, the person may need
independence, and freedom or self-
confidence.
 Cont…

 The most stable and therefore the

healthiest self-esteem is based on
respect from others.
 External fame or celebrity and
unwarranted adulation won’t cause self-
esteem, although you feel better for a
while.
 Cont…

 5. Self-actualization (individual’s desire to grow

and develop to his or her fullest potential)
 ‘What humans can be, they must be.’ (Maslow,
1954)
 Self-actualization reflects an individual’s desire
to grow and develop to his/her fullest potential.
People like opportunities, choosing his/her own
versions, challenging positions or creative
tasks.
 Cont…

 Maslow described this level as the ‘need to

accomplish everything that one can, to
become the most that one can be’.
 Maslow believed that people must overcome
their other needs – described above -, not
only achieve them. At this level, individual
differences are the largest.
 Cont….

 As each level is adequately satisfied, we are

then motivated to satisfy the next level in the
hierarchy, always new and higher needs are
coming.
 This is what we mean, when the basic human
needs are drawn like a pyramid, a hierarchy.
Life experiences, including divorce and loss of
job, may cause an individual to fluctuate
between levels of the hierarchy.
 These five different levels were further sub-
categorised into two main groups: deficiency and
growth needs. Deficiency needs – The very basic
needs for survival and security. These needs include:
 • physiological needs
 • safety and security needs
 • social needs – belongingness and love
 • esteem needs
 Cont…

 It may not cause a physical indication if

these ‘deficiency needs’ are not fulfilled, but
the individual will feel anxious and tense.
 So the most basic level of needs must be
fulfilled before a person wants to focus on
the secondary or higher level needs.
 Cont….

 Growth needs – Personal growth and fulfillment of

personal potential. These needs include self-
actualisation needs
 This hierarchy is not as rigid as we may have
implied. For example, there are some humans for
whom self-esteem or self-actualization seems to be
more important than love or belonging. The
popularity of this theory of motivation rooted in its
simplicity and logic.
 Alderfer – ERG theory

 ERG means Existence needs, relatedness

needs and growth needs
 Alderfer distinguished three steps or classes
of needs: existence, relatedness and growth.
 Maslow’s physiological and safety needs
belong together to existence needs.
 Relatedness can be harmonised to
belongingness and esteem of others.
 Cont…

 Growth is the same as Maslow’s self-esteem

plus self-actualization. Both Maslow and
Alderfer tried to describe how these needs,
these stages of needs become more or less
important to individuals.
 • Existence needs: These include needs for
basic material necessities. In short, it
includes an individual’s physiological and
physical safety needs.
 Cont….

• Relatedness needs: Individuals need

significant relationships (be with family,
peers or superiors), love and belongingness,
they strive toward reaching public fame and
recognition.
 This class of needs contain Maslow’s social
needs and external component of esteem
needs.
 Cont…

 • Growth needs: Need for self-development,

personal growth and advancement form
together this class of need.
 This class of needs contain Maslow’s self-
actualization needs and intrinsic component
of esteem needs.
 Cont….

 Alderfer agreed with Maslow that unsatisfied

needs motivate individuals. Alderfer also
agreed that individuals generally move up the
hierarchy in satisfying their needs; that is,
they satisfy lower-order before higher-order
needs. As lower-order needs are satisfied,
they become less important, but Alderfer also
said: as higher-order needs are satisfied they
become more important.
 Cont…

 And it is also said that under some

circumstances individuals might return to a
lower need.
 Alderfer thought that individuals multiply the
efforts invested in a lower category need when
higher categorized needs are not consequent.
 For example there is a student, who has
excellent grades, friends, and high standard of
living, maybe also work at the university.
 Cont…

 What happens if this individual finds that he or she

is frustrated in attempts to get more autonomy and
responsibility at the university, maybe also more
scholarship that generally encourage individuals’
growth?
 Frustration in satisfying a higher (growth) need
has resulted in a regression to a lower level of
(relatedness) needs (‘I need just my friends, some
good wine, I do not want to go to the university
anymore.’).
 Cont…

 This event is known and called as the

frustration-regression process.
 This is a more realistic approach as it
recognises that, because when a need is met,
it does not mean it will always remain met.
 ERG theory of motivation is very flexible: it
explains needs as a range rather than as a
hierarchy.
 Implication of this theory:

 Managers must understand that an employee

has various needs that must be satisfied at the
same time.
 ERG theory says, if the manager concentrates
only on one need at a time, he or she won’t be
able to motivate the employee effectively and
efficiently. Prioritization and sequence of these
three categories, classes can be different for
each individual.
 McClelland – Need for achievement,
affiliation and power
 In the early 1960s McClelland – built on
Maslow’s work – described three human
motivators.
 McClelland (Arnold et al., 2005) claimed that
humans acquire, learn their motivators over
time that is the reason why this theory is
sometimes called the ‘Learned Needs Theory’.
 Cont…

 He affirms that we all have three motivating drivers,

and it does not depend on our gender or age.
 One of these drives or needs will be dominant in our
behaviour.
 McClelland’s theory differs from Maslow’s and
Alderfer’s, which focus on satisfying existing needs
rather than creating or developing needs. This
dominant motivator depends on our culture and life
experiences, of course (but the three motivators are
permanent).
 The three motivators are:
 • achievement: a need to accomplish and
demonstrate competence or mastery
 • affiliation: a need for love, belonging and
relatedness
 • power: a need for control over one’s own
work or the work of others
 Cont…

 These learned needs could lead to diversity

and variety between employees.
 More precisely, prioritization and
importance of these motivational needs
characterises a person’s behaviour. As we
wrote, although each person has all of these
needs to some extent, only one of them
tends to motivate an individual at any given
time.
 Cont…

 Achievement motivation – a need to

accomplish and demonstrate competence or
mastery. It pertains to a person’s need for
significant success, mastering of skills,
control or high standards.
 It is associated with a range of actions.
Individual seek achievement, attainment of
challenging (and also realistic) goals, and
advancement in the school or job.
 Cont…

 This need is influenced by internal drivers

for action (intrinsic motivation), and the
pressure used by the prospects of others
(extrinsic motivation).
 Low need for achievement could mean that
individuals want to minimise risk of failure,
and for this reason people may choose very
easy or too difficult tasks, when they cannot
avoid failure.
 Cont…

 In contrast, high need for achievement

means that humans try to choose optimal,
sufficiently difficult tasks, because they want
to get the chance to reach their goals, but
they have to work for it, they need to develop
themselves.
 Cont….

 Individuals with high need for achievement

like to receive regular feedback on their
progress and achievements; and often like to
work alone; seek challenges and like high
degree of independence.
 Cont…

 Sources of high need for achievement can be:

praise for success, goal setting skills, one’s own
competence and effort to achieve something, and it
does not depend only on luck; of course positive
feelings and also independence in childhood.
 McClelland said that training, teaching can
increase an individual’s need for achievement. For
this reason, some have argued that need for
achievement is not a need but a value.
 Cont….

 Affiliation motivation – a need for love,

belonging and relatedness
 These people have a strong need for
friendships and want to belong within a
social group, need to be liked and held in
popular regard. They are team players, and
they may be less effective in leadership
positions.
 Cont…

 High-need-for-affiliation persons have

support from those with whom they have
regular contact and mostly are involved in
warm interpersonal relationships.
 After or during stressful situation
individuals need much more affiliation. In
these situations people come together and
find security in one another.
 Cont….

 There are times when individuals want to be with

others and at other times to be alone – affiliation
motivation can become increased or decreased.
Individuals do not like high risk or uncertainty.
 Authority/power motivation – a need to control
over one’s own work or the work of others. These
persons are authority motivated. There is a strong
need to lead and to succeed in their ideas.
 Cont..

 It is also needed to increase personal status and

prestige. This person would like to control and
influence others.
 McClelland studied male managers with high
need for power and high need for affiliation and
found that managers with a high need for
power tended to run more productive
departments in a sales organization than did
managers with a high need for affiliation.
 Cont…

 It is important to speak about gender differences in

need for power. It is said that men with high need
for power mostly have higher aggression, drink
more, act in sexually exploitative manner, and
participate in competitive sports, and also political
unrests.
 At the same time women with higher need for
power show more socially acceptable and
responsible manner, are more concerned and
caring.
 Cont….

 These types of people prefer to work in big,

multinational organisations, businesses and
other influential professions.
 McClelland argues that strong need for
achievement people can become the best
leaders – as we wrote it above. But at the
same time there can be a tendency to
request too much of their employees, ……..
 Cont…

 …..because they think that these people are also

highly achievement-focused and results-driven, as
they are.
 Think about your teachers and professors! I am
sure they all want the best for you, they would like
to develop you, but I do not think you feel the same
every time. McClelland said that most people have
and show a combination of these characteristics.
 Herzberg – Two factor theory

 It is also called motivation-hygiene theory.

 This theory says that there are some factors
(motivating factors) that cause job
satisfaction, and motivation and some other
also separated factors (hygiene factors)
cause dissatisfaction (Figure 3). That means
that these feelings are not opposite of each
other, as it has always previously been
believed.
 Cont…

 Opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, but

rather, no satisfaction.
 According to Herzberg (1987) the job satisfiers
deal with the factors involved in doing the job,
whereas the job dissatisfiers deal with the factors
which define the job context.
 Cont…

 • The Two-Factor Theory is sometimes also called

motivation-hygiene theory.
 • Proposed by psychologist Frederick Herzberg
when he investigated the question, “What do
people want from their jobs?” He asked people to
describe, in detail, situations in which they felt
exceptionally good or bad about their jobs. These
responses were then tabulated and categorized.
 Cont…

 If the hygiene factors, for example salary,

working conditions, work environment,
safety and security are unsuitable (low level)
at the workplace, this can make individuals
unhappy, dissatisfied with their job.
 Cont…

 Motivating factors, on the other hand, can

increase job satisfaction, and motivation is
based on an individual's need for personal
growth. If these elements are effective, then
they can motivate an individual to achieve
above-average performance and effort.
 For example, having responsibility or
achievement can cause satisfaction.
 Cont…

 Hygiene factors are needed to ensure that an

employee is not dissatisfied.
 Motivation factors are needed to ensure
employee's satisfaction and to motivate an
employee to higher performance
 Cont…

 From the categorized responses, Herzberg

concluded:
 Intrinsic factors, such as advancement,
recognition, responsibility, and achievement
seem to be related to job satisfaction.
 Dissatisfied respondents tended to cite
extrinsic factors, such as supervision, pay,
company policies, and working conditions.
 Cont…

 Herzberg’s five factors of job satisfaction

(motivating factors):
 • achievement
 • recognition
 • work itself
 • responsibility
 • advancement
 Cont….

 Only these factors can motivate us. But at the same

time we need the lack of dissatisfactions (we need
hygiene factors, "workpeace") to achieve more
efficient work.
 Herzberg’s five factors of job dissatisfaction
(hygiene factors – deficiency needs):
 • company policy and administration
 • supervision
 • salary
 • interpersonal relationships
 • working conditions
 Cont….

 The opposite of satisfaction is not

dissatisfaction.
 Removing dissatisfying characteristics from a
job does not necessarily make the job
satisfying.
 Job satisfaction factors are separate and
distinct from job dissatisfaction factors.
Managers who eliminate job dissatisfaction
factors may not necessarily bring about
motivation.
 Cont…

 When hygiene factors are adequate, people

will not be dissatisfied; neither will they be
satisfied.
 To motivate people, emphasize factors
intrinsically rewarding that are associated
with the work itself or to outcomes directly
derived from it.
 Can we motivate with money, with higher salary?
What did Herzberg and Maslow say? Is it just the
same or something different?
 Herzberg addressed salary not a motivator in the
way that the primary motivators are, just like
achievement and recognition. Salary can be a
motivator, if you get always higher and higher salary,
but we cannot say that it is an incentive. Maslow
said, money or salary is needed to buy food to eat, to
have some place to live and sleep, etc. It can be a
physiological need.
 Criticisms of the theory

 The procedure that Herzberg used is limited by its

methodology.
 The reliability of Herzberg’s methodology is questioned.
 No overall measure of satisfaction was utilized.
 Herzberg assumed a relationship between satisfaction
and productivity, but the research methodology he used
looked only at satisfaction, not at productivity.
 Regardless of criticisms, Herzberg’s theory has been
widely read, and few managers are unfamiliar with his
recommendations.
 Skinner's reinforcement theory

 The Reinforcement theory, based on Skinner's

operant conditioning theory, says that behaviour
can be formed by its consequences Positive
reinforcements
 , for example praise, appreciation, a good
mark/grade, trophy, money, promotion or any
other reward can increase the possibility of the
rewarded behaviours' repetition.
 Cont….

 If a student gets positive verbal feedback and a good

grade for his test, this reinforcement encourages the
performance of the behaviour to recur.
 If the teacher doesn’t tell precisely what he expects,
then the positive reinforcements can drive the
behaviour closer to the preferred.
 For example, when a student who is usually late to
class gets positive feedback when he arrives on time,
the student becomes more and more punctual.
 Cont…

 Positive reinforcement motivates to get the

anticipated reinforcement of required
behaviour.
 We use negative reinforcement when we give
a meal to a hungry person if he behaves in a
certain manner/way.
 In this case the meal is a negative
reinforcement because it eliminates the
unpleasant state (hunger).
 Cont….

 Contrary to positive and negative reinforcement,

punishment can be undesired reinforcement, or
reinforce undesired behaviour.
 For example, if a student is always late to class and
thus he gets negative verbal feedback and also always
has to tidy up the classroom at the end of the day, in
this case the undesirable behaviour is reinforced
with an undesirable reinforcer. The punishment
declines the tendency to be late.
 Cont….

 According to the theory, positive reinforcement is a

much better motivational technique than
punishment because punishment:
 • tries to stop undesirable behaviour and does not
offer an alternative behaviour
 • creates bad feelings, negative attitudes toward the
activity, and the person who gives the punishment
 • suppresses behaviour, but does not permanently
eliminate it.
 Cont….

 Once certain behaviour has been conditioned

through repetitive reinforcement, elimination
of the reinforcement will decline the motivation
to perform that behaviour.
 Therefore it is better not to give a reward every
time. Reinforcement in the workplace usually
takes place on a partial or irregular
reinforcement schedule, when reward is not
given for every response.
 Cont….

 The reinforcement theory is included in many

other motivation theories. Reward must meet
someone's needs, expectations, must be applied
equitably, and must be consistent.
 The desired behaviour must be clear and realistic,
but the issue remains: which reinforcements are
suitable and for which person?
 Process theories

 The process theories on the other hand explore how

behavior is caused, sustained or stopped by the
motivational factors. There are four predominant
process theories that include reinforcement,
expectancy, equity and goal setting.
 The process theories mainly imply that individual
choices are based on preferences, reward factors and
sense of accomplishment. Therefore, the managers
should understand the process of motivation.
 Cont….

 The works of Skinner are cited most often in

connection with the reinforcement theory.
 The main assumption underlying Skinner’s
work is that it is the consequences (referred
to as operants; that’s why the term operant
conditioning) that affect behavior. The
expectancy model focuses on the likelihood
of the occurrence of the outcome.
 Vroom's expectancy theory

 The expectancy theory places an emphasis on the

process and on the content of motivation as well, and
it integrates needs, equity and reinforcement
theories.
 Victor Vroom's (1964) expectancy theory aims to
explain how people choose from the available
actions. Vroom defines motivation as a process that
governs our choices among alternative forms of
voluntary behaviour.
 Cont…

 The basic rationale of this theory is that motivation

stems from the belief that decisions will have their
desired outcomes.
 as well.
 The motivation to engage in an activity is determined
by appraising three factors. These three factors are
the following
 • Expectancy – a person’s belief that more effort will
result in success. If you work harder, it will result in
better performance.
 Cont…

 In this case the question is: "Am I capable of making

a good grade on a math test if I learn more?"
Appraisal of this factor is based on the effort to learn
math, on knowledge of math, on the previous
experience of math test results, on self-efficacy and
specific self-rated abilities.
 do something will be zero
 Cont….

 • Instrumentality – the person’s belief that there is a

connection between activity and goal. If you perform
well, you will get reward.
 In this case the question is that: "Will I get the
promised reward (a good mark) for performing well
on a math test?" Appraisal of this factor is based on
the accuracy and consistency of marking. If one day I
get a good grade and another day I get a bad grade
for the same performance, then the motivation will
decrease.
 Cont…

 • Valence – the degree to which a person values the

reward, the results of success.
 In this case the question is that: "Do I value the
reward that I get?" Appraisal of this factor is based
on the importance of its subject (math), the good
mark, and the good performance in general.
 Vroom supposes that expectancy, instrumentality
and valence are multiplied together to determine
motivation. This means that if any of these is zero,
then the motivation to
 Cont….

 •Expectancy theory is one of the most widely

accepted explanations of motivation. Victor Vroom’s
expectancy theory has its critics but most of the
research is supportive.
 •Expectancy theory argues that the strength of a
tendency to act in a certain way depends on the
strength of an expectation that the act will be
followed by a given outcome and on the
attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.
 Cont….

 It says that an employee will be motivated to exert a

high level of effort when he/she believes that:
 Effort will lead to a good performance appraisal.
 That a good appraisal will lead to organizational
rewards.
 That the rewards will satisfy his/her personal goals.
 Three key relationships.
 Effort-performance relationship: the probability
perceived by the individual that exerting a given
amount of effort will lead to performance
 Performance-reward relationship: the degree to
which the individual believes that performing at a
particular level will lead to the attainment of a
desired outcome
 Rewards-personal goals relationship: the degree to
which organizational rewards satisfy an individual’s
personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of
those potential rewards for the individual
 Cont..

 Expectancy theory helps explain why a lot of workers

merely do the minimum necessary to get by. For
example:
 If I give a maximum effort, will it be recognized in
my performance appraisal?
 No, if the organization’s performance appraisal
assesses nonperformance factors. The employee,
rightly or wrongly, perceives that his/her boss does
not like him/her.
 Cont….

 If I get a good performance appraisal, will it lead to

organizational rewards?
 Typically many employees see the performance-
reward relationship in their job as weak.
 If I am rewarded, are the rewards ones that I find
personally attractive?
 It is important that the rewards be tailored to
individual employee needs
 Cont….

 The key to expectancy theory is the understanding of

an individual’s goals and the linkage between effort
and performance, between performance and
rewards, and finally, between the rewards and
individual goal satisfaction.
 As a contingency model, expectancy theory
recognizes that there is no universal principle for
explaining everyone’s motivations.
 Attempts to validate the theory have been
complicated by methodological criterion and
measurement problems.
 Cont….

 Published studies that purport to support or negate

the theory must be viewed with caution.
 Importantly, most studies have failed to replicate the
methodology as it was originally proposed.
 Some critics suggest that the theory has only limited
use, arguing that it tends to be more valid for
predicting in situations where effort-performance
and performance-reward linkages are clearly
perceived by the individual
 Cont….

 A person who doesn’t see the connection between

effort and performance will have zero expectancy. A
person who can’t perceive the link between
performance and reward will have zero
instrumentality. For a person who doesn’t value the
anticipated outcome, reward will have zero valence.
 For example if I think:
 - that no matter how hard I’m studying I can’t learn
math due to lack of necessary skills or
 Cont….

 - that no matter how good I perform on the test I

don’t always get good mark so the reward is
unpredictable, not dependent on my success or
 - the good mark from math is not important for me,
and I’m not interested in math, so the reward is not
attractive, then I won’t be motivated to learn for the
exam.
 The expectancy theory highlights individual
differences in motivation and contains three useful
factors for understanding and increasing motivation.
This theory implies equity and importance of
consistent rewards
 Critics Vroom’s expectancy theory

 1. Critics like Porter and Lawler lebeled it as a theory

of cognitive hedonism which proposes that
individual cognitively chooses the course of action
that leads to the greatest degree of pleasure or the
smallest degree of pain.
 2. The assumption that people are rational and
calculating makes the theory idealistic.
 3. The expectancy theory does not describe
individual and situational differences.
 But the valence or value people place on various
rewards varies. For example, one employee prefers
salary to benefits, whereas another person prefers to
just the reverse. The valence for the same reward
varies from situation to situation.
 In spite of all these critics, the greatest point in me
expectancy theory is that it explains why significant
segment of workforce exerts low levels of efforts in
carrying out job responsibilities.
 Adams' equity theory

 The equity theory states that people are motivated if

they are treated equitably, and receive what they
consider fair for their effort and costs.
 The theory was suggested by Adams (1965) and is
based on Social Exchange theory.
 According to this theory, people compare their
contribution to work, costs of their actions and the
benefits that will result to the contribution and
benefits of the reference person.
 Cont…

 If people perceive that the ratio of their inputs-

outputs to the ratio of referent other's input-output
is inequitable, then they will be motivated to reduce
the inequity
 Cont….

 At the workplace the workers put inputs into

the job, such as education, experience,
effort, energy, and expect to get some
outcomes such as salary, reward, promotion,
verbal recognition, and interesting and
challenging work each in equal amounts
 Cont….

 The equity theory works not just in the

workplace, but at school as well. For
example, when for the same oral exam
performance two students get different
marks, then inequity exists. In this case, the
student who gets the worse mark may lose
his/her motivation to learn (reduce his/her
efforts), or persuade the teacher to give
him/her a better mark, ….
 Cont…

…….or change the perception of the reference

person's performance ("I did not know
everything, but my classmate could answer all
the questions"). ensuring equity is essential to
motivation.
 At the school it can demotivate students if
someone who never studies or who never
performs better than the others always gets
good mark.
 Cont….

 The greater the inequity the greater the

distress an individual feels, which will
motivate the endeavour to make the
outcomes and the inputs equal compared to
the reference person.
 Cont…..

 When inequity exists, a person might…

 • reduce his/her inputs, efforts, quantity or quality of
his/her work
 • try to increase his/her outputs (ask for better mark,
or pay raising)
 • adjust his/her perception of reference person or
his/her outcomes or inputs (re-evaluate his/her or
the reference person's effort or outcome)
 • change the reference person
 • quit the situation.
 The problem with equity theory is that it does not
take into account differences in individual needs,
values, and personalities.
 For example, one person may perceive a certain
situation as inequitable while another does not.
Nevertheless
 Locke's goal-setting theory

 Locke's (1990) goal setting theory is an integrative

model of motivation just like the expectancy theory.
 It emphasizes that setting specific, challenging
performance goals and the commitment to these
goals are key determinants of motivation. Goals
describe a desired future, and these established goals
can drive the behaviour. Achieving the goals, the goal
accomplishment further motivates individuals to
perform.
 Cont….

 We can distinguish goals according to specificity,

difficulty and acceptance. A specific goal can be
measured and lead to higher performance than a
very general goal like “Try to do your best!” A
difficult, but realistic goal can be more
motivational than easy or extremely difficult ones.
The acceptance of the goal is very important as
well, therefore involvement in the goal setting is
recommended.
 For example, if I decide to pass a medium level
language exam in German in six months – this goal
is specific and difficult enough – because I want to
work in Germany – this goal is very important for
me, therefore the goal commitment is high – then I
will be motivated to learn, and to pass the exam.
 Cont…

 The following guidelines have been useful in the

goal-setting
 • Set challenging but attainable goals. Too easy or too
difficult/unrealistic goals don’t motivate us.
 • Set specific and measurable goals. These can focus
toward what you want, and can measure the progress
toward the goal.
 • Goal commitment should be obtained. If people
don’t commit to the goals, then they will not put
effort toward reaching the goals, even specific, or
challenging ones.
 Cont…

 Strategies to achieve this could include participation

in the goal setting process, use of extrinsic rewards
(bonuses), and encouraging intrinsic motivation
through providing workers with feedback about goal
attainment. Pressure to achieve goals is not useful
because it can result in dishonesty and superficial
performance.
 • Support elements should be provided. For example,
encouragement, needed materials, resources, and
moral support.
 Cont….

 • Knowledge of results is essential – so goals need to

be quantifiable and there needs to be feedback.
 Goal-setting is a useful theory which can be applied
in several fields, from sport to a wide range of work
settings. Sports psychology in particular has adopted
its recommendations. The concept of goal-setting
has been incorporated into a number of incentive
programmes and management by objectives
techniques in a number of work areas.
 Cont…..

 Feedback accompanying goal attainment may also

enhance a worker’s job performance and ability to
become more innovative and creative on the job
through a trial-and-error learning process.
 Since goal-setting is a relatively simple motivational
strategy, it has become increasingly popular.
 Goal-Setting Theory
• In the late 1960s, Edwin Locke proposed that
intentions to work toward a goal are a major source
of work motivation.
• Specific hard goals produce a higher level of
output than do the generalized goals.
• If factors like ability and acceptance of the goals
are held constant, we can also state that the more
difficult the goal, the higher the level of performance.
•
 People will do better when they get feedback on how well
they are progressing toward their goals. Self-generated
feedback is more powerful a motivator than externally
generated feedback.
 • There are contingencies in goal-setting theory. In
addition to feedback, four other factors influence the
goals-performance relationship.
 o Goal commitment
 o Adequate self-efficacy
 o Task characteristics
 o National culture
 MBO Programs: Putting Goal-Setting Theory into
Practice
 • Impressive base of research support
 • Management by objectives
 • Four ingredients
 o Goal specificity
 o Participation in decision making
 o Explicit time period
 o Performance feedback