• Mode of reproduction determines the genetic constitution of
crop plants, that is, whether the plants are normally homozygous or heterozygous.
• A knowledge of the mode of reproduction of crop plants is
also important for making artificial hybrids.
• Production of hybrids between diverse and desirable parents
is the basis for almost all the modern breeding programmes.
• The modes of reproduction in crop plants may be broadly
grouped into two categories, asexual and sexual. Asexual Reproduction Asexual reproduction does not involve fusion of male and female gametes. New plants may develop from vegetative parts of the plant (vegetative reproduction) or may arise from embryos that develop without fertilization (apomixis).
Vegetative Reproduction Apomixis
• In nature, a new plant • seeds are formed but the develops from a portion of embryos develop without the plant body. This may fertilization. occur through following 1. Parthenogenesis modified forms, 2. Apospory 1. Natural vegetative 3. Apogamy • Underground stem 4. Adventive Embryony • Sub-aerial stems • Bulbils 2. Artificial vegetative • Stem cuttings Natural vegetative • Underground Stems • Bulbils • The underground modifications • Bulbils are modified flowers of stem generally serve as that develop into plants directly storage organs and contain many without formation of seeds. buds. These buds develop into • These are vegetative bodies; shoots and produce plants after their development does not rooting. Eg., involve fertilization and seed Tuber : Potato formation. Bulb : Onion, Garlic • The lower flowers in the Rhizome : Ginger, turmeric inflorescence of garlic naturally Corm : Bunda, arwi. develop into bulbils. • Sub-aerial Stems • Scientists are trying to induce bulbil development in plantation • These modifications include crops by culturing young runner, stolon, sucker etc.,. inflorescence on tissue culture • Sub-aerial stems are used for media ; it has been successfully the propagation of mint, date done in the case of cardamom. plam etc. Artificial vegetative • It is commonly used for the propagation of many crop species, although it may not occur naturally in those species.
• Stem cuttings are commercially used for the propagation of
sugarcane, grapes, roses, etc.
• Layering, budding, grafting and gootee are in common use for the propagation of fruit trees and ornamental shrubs.
• Techniques are available for vegetative multiplication through tissue
culture in case of many plant species, and attempts are being made to develop the techniques for many others.
• In many of these species sexual reproduction occurs naturally but for
certain reasons vegetative reproduction is more desirable. Significance of Vegetative Reproduction
• Vegetatively reproducing species offer unique
possibilities in breeding.
• A desirable plant may be used as a variety
directly regardless of whether it is homozygous or heterozygous.
• Further, mutant buds, branches or seedlings,
if desirable, can be multiplied and directly used as varieties. Apomixis • In apomixis, seeds are formed but the embryos develop without fertilization. (without the fusion of male & female gametes).
• Consequently, the plants resulting from them are identical in genotype
to the parent plant.
• In apomictic species, sexual reproduction is either suppressed or
absent.
• When sexual reproduction does occur, the apomixis is termed as
facultative. But when sexual reproduction is absent, it is referred to as obligate.
• Many crop species show apomixis, but it is generally facultative.
• The details of apomictic reproduction vary so widely that a confusing
terminology has resulted. • Parthenogenesis • Apogamy • The embryo develops from embryo • In apogamy, synergids or sac without pollination. It is of two antipodal cells develop into an types embryo. Gonial parthenogenesis – embryos • Like parthenogenesis, apogamy develop from egg cell, may be haploid or diploid Somatic parthenogenesis – depending upon the haploid or embryos develop from any cell of diploid state of the embryo sac. the embryo sac other than the egg • Diploid apogamy occurs in cell. Antennaria, Alchemilla, Allium • Apospory and many other plant species. • The embryo may develop from egg • Adventive Embryony cell or some other cell of this • In this case, embryos develop embryo sac. directly from vegerative cells of • Apospory occurs in some species the ovule, such as nucellus, of Hieraceum, Malus, Crepis, integument, and chalaza. Ranunculus, etc. • Development of embryo does not o Diplospory involve production of embryo • Embryo sac is produced from the sac. megaspore, which may be haploid • Adventive embryony occurs in or, more generally, diploid. mango, citrus, etc. Significance of Apomixis • Apomixis is a nuisance when the breeder desires to obtain sexual progeny, i.e., selfs or hybrids. • It is of great help when the breeder desires to maintain varieties. • The breeder has to avoid apomictic progeny when he is making crosses or producing inbred lines. • But once a desirable genotype has been selected, it can be multiplied and maintained through apomictic progeny. • Asexually reproducing crop species are highly heterozygous and show severe inbreeding depression. • Therefore, breeding methods in such species must avoid inbreeding. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION • Sexual reproduction involves fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote, which develops in to an embryo. Significance of Sexual Reproduction • Sexual reproduction makes it possible to combine genes from two parents into a single hybrid plant. • Recombination of these genes produces a large number of genotypes. • This is an essential step in creating variation thr ough hybridization. • Almost the entire plant breeding is based on sexual reproduction. • Even in asexually reproducing species, sexual reproduction, if it occurs, is used to advantage, e.g., in sugarcane, potato, sweet potato etc. MODES OF POLLINATION • Self-pollination • Genetic Consequences of Self- • Bisexuality Pollination • Cleistogamy. • Self-pollination leads to a very • Homogamy rapid increase in homozygosity. • Chasmogamy • Therefore, populations of self- pollinated species are highly • Position of anthers in relation to homozygous. stigma. • Self-pollinated species do not show inbreeding depression, but may exhibit considerable heterosis. • Therefore, the aim of breeding methods generally is to develop homozygous varieties. • Cross-Pollination • Genetic Consequences of Cross- Pollination. • Unisexuality (Dicliny) • promotes heterozygosity in a monoecy population. dioecy • Dichogamy • highly heterozygous and show mild to severe inbreeding protogyny depression and considerable Protandry amount of heterosis. • Heterostyly • Usually, hybrid or synthetic • Herkogamy varieties are the aim of breeder • Self incompatibility wherever the seed production of • Male sterility such varieties is economically feasible.