Lecture 1:

1
Relation and Functions

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If a man pointing towards a boy says

he is the son of my wife. What is the
relationship between the boy and the
man?...

By relation, we understand a connection or a link

between the two.

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In the set theory, a relation is a way

of showing a connection or
relationship between any two sets.

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Relation
- connection between the elements of
two or more sets
- the sets must be non-empty
- A subset of the Cartesian product
also forms a relation R.
- A relation may be represented either
by Roster method or by Set-builder
method.
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5 Let A and B be two sets such that
A = {2, 5, 7, 8, 10, 13} and
B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Then,
(Set-builder form)
R = {(x, y): x = 4y – 3, x ∈ A and y ∈ B}
(Roster form)
R = {(5, 2), (10, 3), (13, 4)}

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2
5 1
7 2
8 3
9 4
10 5
13

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Types of relation…

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Empty Relation
If no element of set X is related or
mapped to any element of X, then
the relation R in A is an empty
relation, i.e, R = Φ.

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Universal Relation
A relation R in a set, say A is a universal
relation if each element of A is related
to every element of A, i.e., R = A × A.
Also called Full relation
Empty relation and Universal relation are sometimes
called trivial relation.

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10 Identity Relation
In Identity relation, every element of
set A is related to itself only. I = {(a, a),
∈ A}.

For example, If we throw two dice, we get 36

possible outcomes, (1, 1), (1, 2), … , (6, 6). If we
define a relation as R: {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5,
5), (6, 6)}, it is an identity relation.
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Inverse Relation
Let R be a relation from set A to set B
i.e., R ∈ A × B. The relation R-1 is said to
be an Inverse relation if R-1 from set B to
A is denoted by R-1 = {(b, a): (a, b) ∈ R}.
Considering the case of throwing of two dice if R = {(1, 2),
(2, 3)}, R-1 = {(2, 1), (3, 2)}. Here, the domain of R is the
range of R-1 and vice-versa.

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 Reflexive Relation
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If every element of set A maps to itself, the relation is
Reflexive Relation. For every a ∈ A, (a, a) ∈ R.
Symmetric Relation
A relation R on a set A is said to be symmetric if (a,
b) ∈ R then (b, a) ∈ R, for all a & b ∈ A.
Transitive Relation
A relation in a set A is transitive if, (a, b) ∈ R, (b, c) ∈
R, then (a, c) ∈ R, for all a, b, c ∈ A
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Equivalence Relation
A relation is said to be equivalence if and
only if it is Reflexive, Symmetric, and
Transitive.
For example, if we throw two dices A & B and note down
all the possible outcome.
Define a relation R= {(a, b): a ∈ A, b ∈ B}, we find that {(1,
1), (2, 2), …, (6, 6) ∈ R} (reflexive). If {(a, b) = (1, 2) ∈ R}
then, {(b, a) = (2, 1) ∈ R} (symmetry). ). If {(a, b) = (1, 2)
∈ R} and {(b, c) = (2, 3) ∈ R} then {(a, c) = (1, 3) ∈ R}
(transitive)
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14 Problem:
Three friends A, B, and C live near each other at a
distance of 5 km from one another. We define a
relation R between the distances of their houses. Is
R an equivalence relation?
Solution: For an equivalence Relation, R must be reflexive, symmetric and
transitive.
R is not reflexive as A cannot be 5 km away to itself.
The relation, R is symmetric as the distance between A & B is 5 km which is the
same as the distance between B & A.
R is transitive as the distance between A & B is 5 km, the distance between B & C
is 5 km and the distance between A & C is also 5 km.
Therefore, this relation is not equivalent.
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15 Have you ever thought that a particular person has
particular jobs or functions to do? Consider the functions
or roles of postmen. They deliver letters, postcards,
telegrams and invites etc. What do firemen do? They are
responsible for responding to fire accidents.
In mathematics also, we can define
functions. They are responsible for
assigning every single object of one set
to that of another.
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 Functions
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A function is a relation that maps
each element x of a set A with one
and only one element y of another
set B.
In other words, it is a relation
between a set of inputs and a set of
outputs in which each input is related
with a unique output.
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A function is a rule that relates an
input to exactly one output.

INPUT FUNCTION OUTPUT

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Function is a special type of relation.
A relation f from a set A to a set B is said
to be a function if every element of set
A has one and only one image in set B
and no two distinct elements of B have
the same mapped first element.
A and B are the non-empty sets. The whole set A is the
domain and the whole set B is codomain.

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A function f: X →Y is represented as
f(x) = y, where, (x, y) ∈ f and x ∈ X and
y ∈ Y.
For any function f, the notation f(x) is read as “f of x”
and represents the value of y when x is replaced by the
number or expression inside the parenthesis.
The element y is the image of x under f and x is the
pre-image of y under f.

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1
2
3
1
4
-1
5
6
7

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21 Every element of the set has an image which is unique
and distinct. If we notice around, we can find many
examples of functions.
If we lift our hand upward, it is a function. Waving our
hand freely, it is a function. A walk in a circular track,
yes it is a type of function. Now you can think of other
examples too! A graph can represent a function. The
graph is the set of all pairs of the Cartesian product.
Does this mean that every curve in the world defines a function? No, not every
curve drawn is a function. How to find it? Vertical line test. If any curve
intercepts a vertical line at more than one point, it is a curve only not a
function.

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22 Recall:
We can define a function as a special
relation which maps each element of set
A with one and only one element of set B.
Both the sets A and B must be non-empty.
A function defines a particular output for a
particular input.
Hence, f: A → B is a function such that for
a ∈ A there is a unique element b ∈ B such
that (a, b) ∈ f
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Types of functions:
One to One Function
A function f: A → B is One to One if for each
element of A there is a distinct element of B.
It is also known as Injective.
Consider if a1 ∈ A and a2 ∈ B, f is defined as
f: A → B such that f (a1) = f (a2)

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Many to One Function
It is a function which maps two or more
elements of A to the same element of set B.
Two or more elements of A have the same
image in B.

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Onto Function
If there exists a function for which every
element of set B there is (are) pre-
image(s) in set A, it is onto Function.
Onto is also referred as Surjective
Function.

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One – One and Onto Function
A function, f is one – one and onto or
bijective if the function f is both one to
one and onto function.
In other words, the function f associates
each element of A with a distinct element
of B and every element of B has a pre-
image in A.
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29 Other Types of Functions
Identity Function
Let R be the set of real numbers. If the
function f: R→R is defined as f(x) = y = x,
for x ∈ R, then the function is known as
identity function.
The domain and the range being R.
The graph is always a straight line which cuts the 1st and the 3rd quadrants and
passes through the origin.

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Constant Function
If the function f: R→R is defined as
f(x) = y = c, for x ∈ R and c is a constant
in R, then such function is known as
constant function.
The domain of the function f is R and its
range is a constant, c.
Plotting a graph, we find a straight line parallel to the x-axis.

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Polynomial Function
A polynomial function is defined by
y =a0 + a1x + a2x2 + … + anxn, where n is a
non-negative integer and a0, a1, a2,…, n ∈ R.
The highest power in the expression is the
degree of the polynomial function.

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 Polynomial Functions
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are further classified based on their degrees:
Constant Function:
If the degree is zero, the polynomial function is a
constant function
Linear Function:
The polynomial function with degree one.
Such as y = x + 1 or y = x or y = 2x – 5 etc. Taking into consideration,
y = x – 6.
The domain and the range are R.
The graph isMATH
always
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a straight line.
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 Quadratic Function:
34 If the degree of the polynomial function is two, then it
is a quadratic function.
It is expressed as f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a ≠ 0 and
a, b, c are constant & x is a variable.
The domain and the range are R.
The graphical representation of a quadratic function is a parabola.

Cubic Function:
A cubic polynomial function is a polynomial of
degree three and can be denoted by f(x) = ax3 +
bx2 + cx +d, where a ≠ 0 and a, b, c, and d are
constant & x is a variable.
The domain and the range are R.
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graph

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Rational Function
- can be represented by a rational fraction
say, f(x)/g(x) in which numerator, f(x) and
denominator, g(x) are polynomial functions
of x, where g(x) ≠ 0.
Let a function f: R → R is defined say,
f(x) = 1/(x + 2.5).
The domain and the range are R.
The graphical representation shows asymptotes, the curves which seem to
touch the axes-lines.
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graph

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38 Modulus Function
The absolute value of any number, c is
represented in the form of |c|.
If any function f: R→ R is defined by f(x) = |x|,
it is known as modulus function. For each
non-negative value of x, f(x) = x and for each
negative value of x, f(x) = -x, i.e.,
f(x) = {x, if x ≥ 0; – x, if x < 0.
Its domain is R and the range is ≥ 0.
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graph

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40 Signum Function
A function f: R→ R defined by
f(x) = { 1, if x > 0; 0, if x = 0; -1, if x < 0
Signum or the sign function extracts the
sign of the real number and is also known
as step function.

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42 Greatest Integer Function
If a function f: R→ R is defined by f(x) = [x],
x ∈ X. It round-off to the real number to the
integer less than the number.
Suppose, the given interval is in the form of
(k, k+1), the value of greatest integer
function is k which is an integer.
For example: [-21] = 21, [5.12] = 5.

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 graph

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44 Algebra of Real Functions
Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of real-valued
functions:
Addition of Two Real Functions
Let f and g be two real valued functions such that
f: X→R and g: X→R where X ⊂ R.
The addition of these two functions (f + g): X→R is
defined by:
(f + g) (x) = f(x) + g(x), for all x ∈ X.
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45 Subtraction of One Real Function from the
Other
Let f: X→R and g: X→R be two real
functions where X ⊂ R.
The subtraction of these two functions (f – g):
X→R is defined by:
(f – g) (x) = f(x) – g(x), for all x ∈ X.

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Multiplication by a Scalar
Let f: X→R be a real-valued function and γ be
any scalar (real number). Then the product of a
real function by a scalar γf: X→R is given by:
(γf) (x) = γ f(x), for all x ∈ X.

Multiplication of Two Real Functions

The product of two real functions say, f and g
such that f: X→R and g: X→R, is given by
(fg) (x) = f(x) g(x), for all x ∈ X.
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Division of Two Real Functions
Let f and g be two real-valued functions such
that f: X→R and g: X→R where X ⊂ R.
The quotient of these two functions (f ⁄ g):
X→R is defined by:
(f / g) (x) = f(x) / g(x), for all x ∈ X.

Note: It is also called pointwise multiplication.

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48 Example:
Problem:
Let f(x) = x3 and g(x) = 3x + 1 and a scalar, γ = 6.
Find:
1. (f + g) (x)
2. (f – g) (x)
3. (yf) (x)
4. (yg) (x)
5. (fg) (x)
6. (f / g) (x)
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Solution:
1. (f + g) (x) = f(x) + g(x) = x3 + 3x + 1.
2. (f – g) (x) = f(x) – g(x) = x3 – (3x + 1) = x3 – 3x – 1.
3. (yf) (x) = γ f(x) = 6x3
4. (yg) (x) = γ g(x) = 6 (3x + 1) = 18x + 6.
5. (fg) (x) = f(x) g(x) = x3 (3x +1) = 3x4 + x3.
6. (f / g) (x) = f(x) / g(x) = x3 / (3x +1),
provided x ≠ – 1/3.

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Find the domain and range of the
following functions:
1. f(x) = 4x – 3 7. f(x) = x -1 if x < 3
2. F(x) = 1 + 𝑥 2x + 1 if x ≥ 3
3. G(x) = │1 – 2x│
4. h(x) = x2 + 3 8. f (x) = -3 if x ≤ 1
𝑥 2 −2𝑥+1
5. f(x) = -1 if 1 < x < 2
𝑥 −1
6. G: y = 4 + x2 3 if x ≥ 2
9. g: y = 4 −𝑥
(𝑥 2 +3𝑥 −4)(𝑥 2 −9)
10. H: y =
(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 −12) ( 𝑥+3)
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