CHAPTER 1

Introduction to the St
Cellular and Molecular
Biology
to understand
behavior of all
Diagram of nerve cells from the cat brain,
hand‐drawn by Santiago Ramon y Cajal.

SantiagoRamon y Cajal
collection individualcells
of
opposed CamilloGolgi
composed
of
continuous network

of filaments
 Introduction
• Cells(cellular and molecular levels)are
topic of intense study.
• The study of cells requires tocreativ
simplest complex
instruments and techniques.
most
• Cell biology is reductionist, based
premise that studying the parts of
can explain the character of the
• Machinery of living system (cells)
DNA polymerase -- in vitro ( test tube) and
in vivo (cells).
proofreading inDNAreplication
 1.1 The Discovery of Ce
storeair structuresrooms
• The discovery of porous cellssmall
inhabited
by
monks -Piece of cork.
followed form stoppers
the
(part of bark of trees)
invention of to the
cork 27g --Empty cell wall of
microscopeby Robert dead plant tissue.
Hooke, and its of
animalalfalfa
Microbiology
refinement by Anton
tubinastoreowner
Leewenhoek. Dutch
hobbygrinding
lenses
Pondwater paramecium
• Glass surface: Curved-
glasssurfacebends light
to form images.

spectacles Europe13th
comp microscope 16th
 The Discovery of Cells(2)
• Cell theorywas articulated in the mid-18
by Schleiden, Schwann and Virchow.
– All
Schleiden organisms are composed (one or
– The cell is the structural and func
Schwann
life.
– Cells arise from pre-existing cellsby divis
Virchow

?
Non cellular materials
BASIC PROPERTIES OF CELLS
life and death
grow and reproduce
highly complex organized
geneticprogram
produce more of themselves
acquire utilize energy
chemical reactions
mechanical activities
respond to stimuli
self regulation controlling
 1.2 Basic Properties of
• Life and death is the most
basic property of cells.
• Cells can grow and
reproduce in culture for
extended periods.
– HeLa cellsare cultured
tumor cells isolated form a
cancer (cervical tumor)
patient (HenriettaLacks) by
George and Martha Gray in
1951. JohnHopkins University
– Cultured cells are an
cancer
essential tool for cell
biologists. cervical
HeLa Cells
aggressive
at31 understandmoreaboutcancercells
died
 Basic Properties of Cells(
• Cells are HighlyComplexand Organized
– Cellularprocessesare highly regulated.
DNA duplication
Protein synthesis
0 regulation sameancestor
2

– Cells from different speciesshare similar struc

composition and metabolic featuresthat hav
conserved throughout evolution.

Capical www.YW dries

 Cap mimedmitochondria
villi 17 microvilli baseofvilli
simple
columnar
Basic Properties
Villus of the small intestinal wall
of Cells(2
Epithelial cell
(intestine)
 Basic Properties of Cells(
• Cells Posses a Genetic Programand
Means to Use It
– Genesencode information to build each
the organism.
– Genesencode information for cellular
reproduction, activity, and structure.

Example: insulin, insulin receptor, actin and

synthesizing machinery.
 Basic Properties of Cells(
• Cells Are Capable of
Producing More of
Themselves
oaf
mellow
bred
– Cells reproduce, and
each daughter cells
receives a complete set
of genetic instructions.

Cell division and

Oocyte
proliferation
content sa mother
faithful same sa daughter
 Basic Properties of Cells(
• Cells Acquire and Utilize Energy
– Photosynthesis provides fuel for most
Light energy (sun)
0
Light absorbing compound
0
– Animal cells derive energy from the product
compounds, mainly in the form of glucos
Liver----release glucose--to other cells

– Most cells can convertglucose into ATP—a

with readily available energy.
autotrophs producers plants
heterotrophs
 I phs
Basic Properties of Cells(

• Cells Carry Out a Variety anabolism

of Chemical Reactions
Liver (hepatocyte)---glucose

Glucose--beta Cells
Enzymes
• Cells Engagein Beta-Cells: insulin
Motor proteins
Mechanical Activities
Receptors
Insulin:
Liver
sing
• Cells Are Able to Adipose
Vesicles
Muscle
Respond to Stimuli Brain
 Basic Properties of Cells(
• Cells Are Capable of Self-Regulation /controlling.
Errors during DNA Duplication

switchedon off Mutations

Deletions
Re-arrange of Chromosomes

cancer
telomerase Diseases
(example: cancer)
Genetic effect---Environmental agents effect

baeoperon p53 tumorsuppressorgene

 1.3 Two Fundamentally Different
Classes of Cells (1)
• Prokaryoticand
eukaryoticare
distinguished by their
size and type of
organelles.
• Prokaryotesare all
bacteria, which arose
~3.7 billion years ago.
• Eukaryotesinclude
protists, animals,
plants and fungi.
O2 2 LIBYA
AUS 02.7
BUA
 A Comparison of Prokaryotic and
Eukaryotic Cells

proteasome
A Comparison of Prokaryotic and
Eukaryotic Cells
 Basic Properties of Cells(
• Characteristics that distinguish prokaryotic
eukaryotic cells
– Complexity:Prokaryotes are relatively simp
eukaryotes are more complex in str
function.
– Genetic material:
• Packaging:Prokaryotes have a nucleoid region w
eukaryotes have a membrane-bound nucleus.
6 6
0.66 x10 bpProkaryotes; ~8 x10 bpEukaryotes
x10 bp)
• Amount:Eukaryotes have much more genetic m
prokaryotes.
• Form:Eukaryotes have many chromosomes m
linear DNA and protein whereas prokaryotes
circular DNA.
La can replicate bidirectional
The structure of cells
plant The structure of cells

O
animal The structure of cells

O
 The
structure
of a
eukaryotic
cell

active
Eurochromatin
Heterochromatin
inactive
 Basic Properties of Cells(
• Characteristics that distinguish prokaryotes
eukaryotes
– Cytoplasm:Eukaryotes have membrane-bound
organelles and complex cytoskeletal pro
have ribosomes but they differ in siz
Cytoplasm: Soluble part (cytosol) and
– Cellular reproduction:Eukaryotes divide by
(mitotic spindle); prokaryotes divide by simp
– Locomotion:Eukaryotes use both cytoplasmic
movement, and cilia and flagella;prokaryote
flagella,but they differ in both for
 The cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell
crowded compartment
cytoskeleton
microtubules

FISH
 Cellular reproduction in eukaryot
and prokaryotes
fertility
transfersgeneticmaterial

pitus from donortorecipient

mitotic spindle
100% of genetic material is exchange Non- sexual reproduction
(Cunjugation-plasmid-)
fibers
spindle A fraction of genetic material is exchange
 The difference between prokaryotic
Salmonella
and eukaryotic flagella
sperm cell

Microtubules

Filaments
undulatory
narrow Ismaker an wavelike
no membrane
9 2 11 filaments
 Basic Properties of Cells(
• Typesof ProkaryoticCells
2. antibiotic
Domain Bacteria
resistant
– 1. Domain Archaea • Includes the smallest k
nocellwall
• Methanogens cells –mycoplasmaPleiomorphic
• Halophiles • Includes cyanobacteria –
• Acidophiles
• Thermophiles some photosynthetic bacteria
• Cyanobacteriagave rise t
green plants and a
pseudomurein oxygen-rich atmosph
CO2, H 2 CH4 • H2O CO2 gas
• Some bacteria capable of
nitrogen fixation.
Soil
• N2 gas NH3 gas

peptidoglycan
 Basic Properties of Cells(
• Types Eukaryotic
of Cells: Cell
Specialization
– Unicellulareukaryotes are complex
single-celled organism ( Example:
hotosynthesis
Vorticella) protists
motile
macronucleus– Multicellulareukaryotes have different
cell types for different functions.
• Differentiation(Proliferation)
occurs during embryonic
development in other multicellular
organisms.
• Numbers and arrangements of
organelles relate to the function of
the cell.
• Despite differentiation, cells have
many features in common.
Vorticella, a complex ciliated protist.
 Pathwaysof cell differentiation
types
dippuentiatin Proliferation
zgo specialization

µ ?
affair
 Basic Properties of Cells(

• Multicellular eukaryotes have different cell t

different functions.
– Specialization:
– ModelOrganisms:
• Cell research focuses on six model organisms.
• These are the bacterium Escherichia coli, the
the mustard plant Arabidopsis,the nematodeCaenorhabd
elegans, the fruit fly Drosophila,and the

simple highfecundity short lifespan

nutrients4 advancedlaboratory
doesnotrequire expensive
 Six
Escherichia
model
Saccharomyces
coli
organisms
cerevisiae Arabidopsis th

eukaryote wheat
fungi Xtrelmaintain
unicellular to
fermentation easy
Allsgrowwlovwlooz
wewbacillus
replication comparable to
transcription proteins
synthesis human
protein

NobelPritt doesnot require removesthymus

nematode dev expensivefood antibodies
embryonic

bonds
of abdomen

Caenorhabditis
EEE
elegansDrosophila melanogaster
Mus musculus
 00

Basic Properties of Cells(

• The Sizes of Cells and Their Components
– Cells are commonly measured in units
micrometers(1 μm–6 meter)
= and10 nanometers
(1 nm–9 meter).
= 10
– Cell size is limited:
• By the volume of cytoplasm that ca
the genes in the nucleus and by ex
• By the distanceover which substances ca
travel through the cytoplasm via diffusion.
Relative sizes of
cells and cell
components
50 to 100
 Basic Properties of Cells(
• Synthetic Biologyis a field oriented
cell in the laboratory.
–A more modest goal is to develop nove
beginning with existing organisms.

?
Non cellular material
(from scratch)
 1.4 Viruses (1)
• Virusesare pathogens.
• Virusesare intracellular obligate parasites
particles
• Virusesare infectious particles. (DNA/RNA/lipid/protein)
•A virionis a virus particle outside
• Viral structure:
– Genetic materialand can be single-strande
– Protein capsidsurrounds the genetic mate
–A lipid envelope may surround the

Human diseases:
--HIV, polio, influenza, measles and some types of cancers
 Tobacco mosaic virus
discoloration
Dmitri awwad
wanovsky
plants
RNA

filter
to
wins
pasteur
phenol
infections can
remove
causedB
capsid
pacteria
 Viruses (2)
• Virus and host
– Viruses have
surface proteins
that bind to the
surface of the host
cell.
– Viral specificityfor
a certain host is
determined by the
virus surface
proteins.
A virus infection
 Viruses (3)
• Viral infection types:
– Lyticinfection—the virus redirects the
making more virus particles, the host
and releases the viruses.
– Integration—the virus integrates its DNA
provirus) into the host cells chromoso
• Infected host may behave normally u
stimulus activates provirus, leading to
• Host may give rise to viral progeny b
• Host may become malignant (Cancer!)

1 attachment
21 Insertion
3 Biosynthesis
3 Biosynthesis
4assembly
S Lyt ic
Viruses (4)
 The Human Perspective: TheProspect of Cell
Replacement Therapy (1)
• Stem cellsare undifferentiated cells
of self-renewaland differentiation.

• Embryonic stem (ES) cellshave even

potential for differentiation (pluripoten
adult stem cells.
– ES cells generated from in vitro fertil
– ES cells must be differentiated in vitro
– The use of ES cells involves ethic
The Human Perspective: TheProspect of Cell
Replacement Therapy (2)

– Adult (somatic) stem cellscan be

damaged or diseased adult tissue (hea
lung).
• Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs)can pr
cells in bone marrow (Leukemias and Ly
• Neural stem cellsmay be used to
neurodegenerative disorders.
• Cancerstem cells...
A procedure for obtaining differentiated
use in cell replacement therapy
An adult stem cell
 The Human Perspective: TheProspect of Cell
Replacement Therapy (3)
• Induced pluripotent (iPS) cellshas been
demonstrated in culture.
– Involves reprogramming a fully diffe
into a pluripotent stem cell.
– These cells have been used to corre
disease conditions in experimental anim
– Studies to reveal the mechanism of
significant medical applications.
Steps taken to generate iPSfor use
the inherited disease sicklecell anemi
Globin gene, the mutation
causing sickle cell anemia
is a single nucleotide
substitution (A to T) in
the codon for amino acid 6.
The change converts a
Glutamic acid codon (GAG)
to a Va l i n e codon (GTG).

Transcriptional factors.
Undifferentiated state.