NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

3.75 Hours
Introduction to Nuclear Chemistry
 Nuclear chemistry is the study of the structure of
and the
they undergo.
Chemical vs. Nuclear Reactions
Chemical Reactions Nuclear Reactions

Bonds are broken Nuclei emit particles

and/or rays
Chemical vs. Nuclear Reactions
Chemical Reactions Nuclear Reactions
Bonds are broken Nuclei emit particles and/or rays

Atoms are Atoms changed into

rearranged atoms of another
element
Chemical vs. Nuclear Reactions
Chemical Reactions Nuclear Reactions
Bonds are broken Nuclei emit particles and/or rays
Atoms may be rearranged Atoms changed to atoms of different
element

Involve valence Involve protons,

electrons neutrons, and/or
electrons
Chemical vs. Nuclear Reactions
Chemical Reactions Nuclear Reactions
Bonds are broken Nuclei emit particles and/or rays
Atoms are rearranged Atoms change into atoms of different
element
Involve valence electrons Involve protons, neutrons, and/or electrons

Small energy Large energy

changes changes
Chemical vs. Nuclear Reactions
Chemical Reactions Nuclear Reactions
Bonds are broken Nuclei emit particles and/or rays
Atoms are rearranged Atoms change into atoms of different
element
Involve valence electrons Involve protons, neutrons, and/or electrons
Small energy changes Large energy changes

Reaction rate can be Reaction rate cannot be

changed. changed
Review of Atomic Structure
Nucleus Electrons
99.9% of the mass 0.01% of the mass, 9,999 times the size
1/10,000 the size of the atom of the nucleus
Protons (p+) and neutrons (n0) Electrons (e-)

Positively charged Negatively charged

Review of Atomic Structure
Nucleus Electrons
99.9% of the mass 0.01% of the mass, 9,999 times the size
1/10,000 the size of the atom of the nucleus
Protons (p+) and neutrons (n0) Electrons (e-)
Positively charged Negatively charged

Strong nuclear force Weak electrostatic

(holds the protons force (between
together) electrons and nucleus
Review of Atomic Structure
Nucleus Electron Cloud

99.9% of the mass 0.01% of the mass

1/10,000 the size of 9,999 times the size
the atom of the nucleus
Review of Atomic Structure
Nucleus Electron Cloud
99.9% of the mass 0.01% of the mass, 9,999 times the size
1/10,000 the size of the atom of the nucleus

Protons (p+) and Electrons (e-)

neutrons (n0)
Chemical Symbols
A chemical symbol looks like…

14
6 C p+ = e- = atomic #

To find the number of , subtract the

from the
The Discovery of Radioactivity (1895 –
1898):
 found that invisible rays were
emitted when electrons hit the surface of a
fluorosent screen (discovered x-rays)
 Becquerel accidently discovered that
phosphorescent rock produced spots
on photographic plates
The Discovery of Radioactivity (1895 –
1898):


 isolated the components ( atoms)

emitting the rays
 – process by which
atoms give off
 – the penetrating rays and
particles by a radioactive source
The Discovery of Radioactivity (1895 –
1898):
Marie Curie, continued
 identified 2 new elements, and
on the basis of their radioactivity

 These findings Dalton’s

theory of indivisible atoms.
The Discovery of Radioactivity (1895 –
1898):
 – atoms of the same element with
different numbers of
 – isotopes of atoms with
unstable nuclei (too many or too few neutrons)
 – when unstable
nuclei lose energy by emitting to
become more
Alpha radiation
 Composition – Alpha particles, same as helium nuclei
4
 Symbol – Helium nuclei, 2He, α
 Charge – 2+
 Mass (amu) – 4
 Approximate energy – 5 MeV
 Penetrating power – low (0.05 mm body tissue)
 Shielding – paper, clothing
Beta radiation
 Composition – Beta particles, same as an electron
 Symbol – e-, 0-1β
 Charge – 1-
 Mass (amu) – 1/1837 (practically 0)
 Approximate energy – 0.05 – 1 MeV
 Penetrating power – moderate (4 mm body tissue)
 Shielding – metal foil
Gamma radiation
 Composition – High-energy electromagnetic
radiation
 Symbol – ooγ
 Charge – 0
 Mass (amu) – 0
 Approximate energy – 1 MeV
 Penetrating power – high (penetrates body easily)
 Shielding – lead, concrete
Nuclear Stability
 Isotope is completely stable if the nucleus will
spontaneously .
 Elements with atomic #s to are
.
 ratio of protons:neutrons ( )
 Example: Carbon – 12 has protons and
neutrons
Nuclear Stability
 Elements with atomic #s to are
.
 ratio of protons:neutrons (p+ : n0)
 Example: Mercury – 200 has protons and
neutrons
Nuclear Stability
 Elements with atomic #s are
and .
 Examples: and
Alpha Decay
 Alpha decay – emission of an alpha particle ( ),
denoted by the symbol 4 , because an α has 2
2
protons and 2 neutrons, just like the He nucleus.
Charge is because of the 2 .
 Alpha decay causes the number to
decrease by and the number to
decrease by .
 determines the
element. All nuclear equations are .
 Alpha Decay
 Example 1: Write the nuclear equation for the
radioactive decay of polonium – 210 by alpha
emission.
Step 4:
1: Determine
2:
3: Draw the
Write the arrow.
element
alpha
the other
particle.
that
product
you are
(ensuring
starting with.
everything is balanced).
Mass #

Atomic #
 Alpha Decay
 Example 2: Write the nuclear equation for the
radioactive decay of radium – 226 by alpha
emission.
Step 4:
1: Determine
2:
3: Draw the
Write the arrow.
element
alpha
the other
particle.
that
product
you are
(ensuring
starting with.
everything is balanced).
Mass #

Atomic #
Beta decay
 Beta decay – emission of a beta particle ( ), a fast
moving , denoted by the symbol
or -10 . β has insignificant mass ( ) and the
charge is because it’s an .

 Beta decay causes change in number

and causes the number to increase by .
 A neutron is converted to a proton and a beta
particle.
 Beta Decay
 Example 1: Write the nuclear equation for the
radioactive decay of carbon – 14 by beta emission.

Step 4:
1: Determine
2:
3: Draw the
Write the arrow.
element
beta
the other
particle.
that
product
you are
(ensuring
starting with.
everything is balanced).
Mass #

Atomic #
 Beta Decay
 Example 2: Write the nuclear equation for the
radioactive decay of zirconium – 97 by beta
decay.
Step 4:
1: Determine
2:
3: Draw the
Write the arrow.
element
beta
the other
particle.
that
product
you are
(ensuring
starting with.
everything is balanced).
Mass #

Atomic #
Gamma decay
 Gamma rays – high-energy
radiation, denoted by the symbol .
 γ has no mass ( ) and no charge ( ). Thus, it
causes change in or
numbers. Gamma rays almost
accompany alpha and beta radiation. However,
since there is effect on mass number or atomic
number, they are usually from nuclear
equations.
Transmutation


the of an atom of one

element to an atom of a different element.

Radioactive decay is one way that

this occurs!
Review
Type of Particle Change in Change in
Radioactive Emitted Mass # Atomic #
Decay
4
Alpha α 2 He -4 -2
0
Beta β -1e 0 +1
Gamma γ 0 0
Half-Life
 is the required for
of a radioisotope’s nuclei to decay into its products.
 For any radioisotope,
# of ½ lives % Remaining
0 100%
1 50%
2 25%
3 12.5%
4 6.25%
5 3.125%
6 1.5625%
Half-Life
Half-Life
100

90

80

70
% Remaining

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
# of Half-Lives
Half-Life
 For example, suppose you have 10.0 grams of
strontium – 90, which has a half life of 29 years.
How much will be remaining after x number of
years? # of ½ lives Time (Years) Amount
Remaining (g)
 You can use a table:
0 0 10
1 29 5
2 58 2.5
3 87 1.25
4 116 0.625
Half-Life
 Or an equation!
Half-Life
 Example 1: If gallium – 68 has a half-life of 68.3
minutes, how much of a 160.0 mg sample is left
after 1 half life? ________
2 half lives? __________ 3 half lives? __________
Half-Life
 Example 2: Cobalt – 60, with a half-life of 5 years,
is used in cancer radiation treatments. If a hospital
purchases a supply of 30.0 g, how much would be
left after 15 years? ______________
Half-Life
 Example 3: Iron-59 is used in medicine to diagnose blood circulation disorders. The half-life
of iron-59 is 44.5 days. How much of a 2.000 mg sample will remain after 133.5 days?
______________
 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡
 𝑁 = 2𝑒 −𝑘𝑡
0.693
 𝑘=
𝑡1/2
0.693
 𝑘= = 0.01557 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 −1
44.5
−0.01557∗133.5
 𝑁 = 2𝑒
 𝑁 = 0.25 𝑚𝑔
 Solution 2:
𝑛
 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜 0.5
133.5
 𝑁 = 2 0.5 44.5

 𝑁 = 0.25 𝑚𝑔
Half-Life
 Example 4: The half-life of polonium-218 is 3.0 minutes.
If you start with 20.0 g, how long will it take before
only 1.25 g remains? ______________
 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜 0.5 𝑛
𝑡
 1.25 = 20 0.5 3

1.25 𝑡
 ln = ln(0.5)
20 3
1.25
ln 20
 𝑡 =3∗
ln(0.5)
 𝑡 = 12 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠
Half-Life
 Example 5: A sample initially contains 150.0 mg of
radon-222. After 11.4 days, the sample contains
18.75 mg of radon-222. Calculate the half-life.
Nuclear Reactions
 Characteristics:
 Isotopes of one element are into
isotopes of another element
 Contents of the change
 amounts of are released
Types of Nuclear Reactions

 decay – alpha and beta

particles and gamma ray emission
 Nuclear - emission of a
or
Nuclear Fission
 - of a nucleus
 - Very heavy nucleus is split into
approximately fragments
 - reaction releases several neutrons
which more nuclei
 - If controlled, energy is released
(like in ) Reaction
control depends on reducing the of the
neutrons (increases the reaction rate) and
extra neutrons ( creases the
reaction rate).
Nuclear Fission
 - 1st controlled nuclear reaction in December 1942.
1st uncontrolled nuclear explosion occurred July
1945.
 - Examples – atomic bomb, current nuclear power
plants
Nuclear Fission
 Disadvantages
 Produces high level radioactive waste that must be
stored for 10,000’s of years.
 Meltdown causes disasters like in Japan and Chernobyl.

 Advantages
 Zero air pollution
 Not a fossil fuel so doesn’t contribute to climate change
Nuclear Fusion
 - Fusion: Combining of two nuclei
 - Two light nuclei combine to form a single heavier
nucleus
 - Does not occur under standard conditions (positive
nuclei repel each other)
 - Advantages compared to fission – No radioactive
waste, inexpensive ,
 - Disadvantages - requires large amount of energy
to start, difficult to control.
 - Examples – energy output of stars, hydrogen
bomb, future nuclear power plants
Uses of Radiation
 Radioactive dating: Carbon–14 used to determine
the age of an object that was once alive.
 Detection of diseases: Iodine–131 used to detect
thyroid problems, technetium–99 used to detect
cancerous tumors and brain disorders, phosphorus –
32 used to detect stomach cancer.
 Treatment of some malignant tumors (cobalt–60
and cesium–137) cancer cells are more sensitive to
radiation than normal, healthy cells
Uses of Radiation
 X-rays
 Radioactive tracers: used in research to tag
chemicals to follow in living organisms
 Everyday items: thorium–232 used in lantern
mantels, plutonium–238 used in long-lasting
batteries for space, and americium–241 in smoke
detectors.