Introduction to

Surveying
 Difference between the true value
and the measured value of a quantity
and is often beyond the control of
the one performing the operation.

ERRORS
Inherent in all measurements and
result from sources which cannot be
avoided.
 Inaccuracies in measurements which
occur because some aspect of a surveying
operation is performed by the surveyor
with carelessness, inattention, poor
judgement, and improper execution.
MISTAKES
Caused by a misunderstanding of the
problem, inexperience, or indifference of
the surveyor.
• A large mistake is called a blunder.
Mistakes and blunders are not considered
as errors because they usually are so large
in magnitude when compared to errors
 Reading the wrong graduation on the tape

Omitting a whole length of tape

Transposition of figures
EXAMPLE OF Reading a scale backward
MISTAKES:
Misplacing a decimal point

Incorrect recording of field notes

Adding a row or column of numbers

incorrectly
• If careful attention is given to the execution of any surveying
operation, mistakes can be avoided.

• The various types of mistakes, however, can only be corrected if

discovered.

• Their detection can be made by systematic checking of all work,

making a commonsense estimate and analysis, or by making a
duplicate measurement.
Types of Errors
1. Systematic Errors.

will always have the same sign and magnitude

as long as field conditions remain constant and
unchanged.
Ex. In making a measurement with a 30-m tape
which is 5 cm too short, the same error is made
each time the tape is used. If a full tape length is
used six times, the error accumulates and totals
six times the error for the total measurement.
2. Accidental Errors.

• Occurrence of such errors are matters of

chance as they are likely to be positive or
negative and may tend in part to compensate
or average out according to the laws of
probability.
2. Accidental Errors.

• There’s no absolute way of determining or

eliminating them since the error for an
observation of a quantity is not likely to be
the same as a second observation.
2. Accidental Errors.

• Caused by factors beyond the control of the

surveyor and are present in all surveying
measurements.
Ex. The failure of the tapeman to exert the correct
amount of pull on the ends of a tape during a
measurement.
Sources of Errors
1. Instrumental Errors

• Due to imperfections in the instruments used,

either from faults in their construction or
from improper adjustments between the
different parts prior to their use.
• With time and continuous usage, the wear
and tear of the instrument will likely be the
cause for errors.
Examples:

• Measuring a steel tape of incorrect length

• Using a leveling rod with painted graduations not perfectly
spaced
• Determining the difference in elevation between two
points with an instrument whose line of sight is not in
adjustment
• Sighting on a rod which is warped
• Improper adjustment of the plate bubbles of a transit or
level
2. Natural Errors

• Caused by variations in the phenomena of

nature such as changes in magnetic
declination, temperature, humidity, wind,
refraction, gravity, and curvature of the earth.
• Beyond the control of man.
Examples:

• Effect of temperature variation on the length of a steel

tape.
• Error in the readings of the magnetic needle due to
variations in magnetic declination
• Deflection of the line of sight because of the earth’s
curvature and atmospheric refraction
• Error in the measurement of a line with a tape being blown
sidewise by a strong wind
• Error in the measurement of a horizontal distance due to a
slope or uneven ground.
3. Personal Errors

• Arise principally from limitations of the senses

of sight, touch and hearing of the human
observer which are likely to be erroneous or
inaccurate.
• Significantly reduced or eliminated as skills
are developed in surveying operations
through constant practice and experience
Examples:

• Error in determining a reading on a rod which is out of

plumb during sighting
• Error in the measurement of a vertical angle when the
cross airs of the telescope are not positioned correctly
on the target.
• Making an erroneous estimate of the required pull to
be applied on a steel tape during measurement.
Accuracy and Precision
 indicates how close a given
measurement is to the
absolute or true value of the
quantity measured.
Accuracy
It implies the closeness
between related
measurements and their
expectations.
 • refers to the degree of
refinement and consistency
with which any physical
measurement is made.
Precision • It is portrayed by the closeness
to one another of a set of
repeated measurements of a
quantity.
 (a) (b)
GOOD PRECISION BUT POOR ACCURACY GOOD ACCURACY BUT POOR PRECISION
(Average hit away from bull’s eye) (Average hit concentrated near bull’s eye)

(c) (d)
GOOD PRECISION AND GOOD ACCURACY POOR PRECISION AND POOR ACCURACY
(Average hit concentrated within the bull’s eye) (No average hit in bull’s eye)
Accuracy and
Precision
• It is desirable for surveying
measurements to be made with
high precision.

• It should be the responsibility of

the surveyor to obtain a degree
of precision which could be as
high as can be justified according
to the purpose of the survey.
Most Probable Value
Most Probable Value

• The most probable value (mpv) of a group of repeated

measurements made under similar conditions is the
arithmetic mean or the average.

σ𝑋 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + 𝑋3 + ⋯ + 𝑋𝑛
𝑚𝑝𝑣 = 𝑋ത = =
𝑛 𝑛
Sample Problems
1. A surveyor instructor sent out six groups of students to
measure a distance between two points marked on the
ground. The students came up with the following six
different values: 250.25, 250.15, 249.90, 250.50, and 251.22
meters. Assuming these values are equally reliable and that
variations result from accidental errors, determine the most
probable value of the distance measured.
2. The angles about a point Q have the following observed
values. 130°16’20”, 142°37’30”, and 87°07’40”. Determine
the most probable value of each angle.
3. The observed interior angles of a triangle are A =
35°14’37”. B = 96°30’09”, and C = 48°15’05”. Determine the
discrepancy for the given observation and the most probable
value of each angle.
4. Measurements of three horizontal angles shown in the
figure about a point P are: APB = 12°31’50”, BPC = 37°29’20”,
and CPD = 47°36’30”. If the measurement if the single angle
APD is 97°37’00”, determine the most probable values of the
angles.