GEOPHYSICS

FOR
GEOLOGIST
AND
ENGINEER
hidartan
 PROCEDURAL STAGES

F
C
A

E
D
B
PRIHADI SA / 2002

ANALYSIS
DETECTION OF

PREDICTION OF
UNCONFORMITIES

PALEOGEOGRAPHY
RECONSTRUCTION OF

STRATIGRAPHIC TRAP
TYPE AND STRUCTURE
DEVELOPMENT OF TIME -
DETERMINATION OF BASIN

ENVIRONMENTAL - FACIES
STRATIGRAPHIC FRAMEWORK

X
X
X
X
Mapping, measuring, and describing sections GEOLOGIC

Systematic collections of samples FIELD

X
X
and detailed f acies description STUDY

X
X
AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHYC ANALYSIS

X
X
X
General correlation and interpretation SEISMIC

X
X
X
Detail correlation and interpretation SURVEYS

X
X
GRAVITY SURVEYS

X
X
MAGNETIC SURVEYS

X
X
REMOTE - SENSING SURVEYS

General uses in correlation and ELECTRIC

X
X
X
X

gross-f acies determination AND

Detailed analyses of curve shapes OTHER WELL

X
X
and f acies boundaries SURVEYS

X
X
X
X
X

General rock-type determination SAMPLE CUTTINGS

X
X Detailed-f acies analysis AND CORES

X
X

General regional stratigraphy and structure GEOLOGIC

X
X
X
X

Detail correlation CROSS SECTIONS

X
X
X
X
X

PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS
EXPLORATION TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES

X
X
X

GEOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS
X
X
X
X

PALEONTOLOGY - AGE
X
X

PALEONTOLOGIC - ENVIRONMENT
X
X

DETERMINATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACIES

X
X
X

ISOPACH MAPS

FACIES-DISTRIBUTION MAPS
X
X
X

( e.g., isolith, three-component, ratio, etc)

SPECIAL-PURPOSE MAPS
X
X
X

(e.g., number of sands > 20' thick )

X
X

PALEOGEOGRAPHIC MAPS
GRAVITY
 MAIN FIELD EQUIPMENT’S

Gravimeter : 1 unit La Coste and Romberg.

Positioning : 2 set GPS-Receivers LEICA
Elevation : 3 set Paulin Altimeter
Communication : 2 unit SSB radios ( 1 unit at
field, 1 unit at head office),
4 unit Handy talky,2vehicles
Data Processing: Laptop PC, printer, software’s,
diskettes, calculator
Crew : Geophysicist,Geodetic, 2 operator
6 lokal labor
Hidartan
 DATA ACQUISITION PLAN

1. Calibration
Calibration of the gravimeter is carried out
several times : before and after a trip and every
two weeks.

2. Base Station
The gravity base station in every location is
established by tying the base station to the
nearest standard base station to the location.

3. Data Acquisition Methods

hidartan
CONTOH METODA PENGUKURAN hidartan
Day2 Day1

CONTOH METODA PENGUKURAN

Hidartan
 DESIGN OF REMOTE DATA COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

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Hidarrtan
 DATA PROCESSING
The data obtained from the sites are sent
directly to the base camp and processed.

1. DATA REDUCTION

2. GRAVITY PROFILES

3. GRAVITY MAP
4. MODELING
 DATA ACQUISITION
* Gravity Measurement
* GPS Positioning

DRIFT and TIDAL

CORRECTION

* FREE AIR CORRECTION

GRAVITY
* BOUGUER CORRECTION
DATA
PROCESSING
TERRAIN CORRECTION
* Inner (Field Processing) FLOW
* Outer (Head Office Processing)
CHART
* Bouguer Anomaly
* Complete Bouguer Anomaly

GRAVITY PROFILES
* Station Coordinate
* Station Elevation
* Gravity Value
hidartan
 1. DATA REDUCTION

The gravity data reduction consists of two

types of correction which are internal and
external correction.
The internal corrections are drift and tidal
corrections.
The external corrections are ellipsoid gravity
value, free air, bouguer, and terrain
corrections.

Hidartan
DRIFT CORRECTION is applied to eliminate the
effect of spring fatigue of the La Coste
instrument. This correction is derived by
double check the starting base station at
appropriate time interval.

TIDAL CORRECTION is applied to eliminate

gravity of the sun and moon which are time
function due to relative motion among earth,
moon and sun. The tidal correction had been
calculated in advance using computer by
applying the Longman’s formula.

Hidartan
Hidartan
ELLIPSOID EARTH GRAVITY reference has to be
applied to produce an earth gravity value at the
mean sea level as a function of location latitude.
This reference implies an homogenous mass
distribution of the ellipsoid earth model.
The ellipsoid model in the IUGG 1979 formula is :

g = 978.03185 (1 + 0.005278895 sin  +

0.000023462 sin4 ) , mgal
where
g = theoretical gravity as function of 
 = latitude of the observation point.
Hidartan
FREE-AIR CORRECTION (FAC) is applied to
estimate the earth gravity at certain altitude
of an observation above mean sea level.
The free air correction formula is calculated
for average earth radius at elevation h in
meters.
FAC = - 0.3086 h, mgal

Hidartan
BOUGUER CORRECTION (BC) is applied to estimate
the earth gravity at elevation h above sea level with
earth mass of density  (gr./cm3) fill up the space of
thickness h.
This theoretical Bouguer correction can be written as:
BC = 2h  Gh = 0.04187  h, mgal
where :
G = 6.67 x 10-9 Cgs unit
 = the chosen density in gr./cm3
H = altitude of observation point in meters.

BOUGUER ANOMALY (BA) is the difference between

the observation gravity value (gobs) and the expected
earth normal gravity at an observation point.
BA = gobs - (g - FAC + BC)
where the magnitude in the bracket is the expected earth normal
gravity.
Hidartan
 BOUGUER EFFECT

B
M

A
h

Hidartan
 TERRAIN CORRECTION

Pengukuran gaya berat sering dilakukan pada

daerah dengan topografi yang cukup
bervariasi.
Koreksi terrain harus dihitung untuk
menghilangkan efek relief permukaan bumi
terhadap nilai anomali Bouguer yang dihitung.
Koreksi ini dihitung sebagai efek gaya berat
yang ditimbulkan oleh suatu badan massa tiga
dimensional yaitu adanya bukit dan lembah di
sekitar stasion pengukuran gaya berat.

PRIHADI SA / 2002
Hidartan
INNER ZONE CORRECTION

To apply this correction, a simple topographic

survey has to be performed at every gravity
station along a radius of  35 and  68 meters
which may be done before or after gravity
reading.
Such survey should include the nature of local
morphology and the distance to the gravity
station which affects the observation.
The correction was directly calculated at the
field by using a certain gravity terrain inner
correction chart.
Hidartan
OUTER ZONE CORRECTION

This correction was done by using the Hammer

Chart, usually based on a topographic map of
1 : 250.000 scale.
Applying the terrain correction, the Bouguer
Anomaly (BA) can be refined to be a Complete
Bouguer Anomaly (CBA) following this formula :

CBA = gobs - (g - FAC + BC - TC)

or
CBA = BA + TC
Hidartan
METODA PERHITUNGAN KOREKSI TERRAIN

Metoda konvensional untuk menghitung

koreksi terrain adalah dengan menggunakan
Hammer Chart dan peta topografi berskala
tertentu.

Sekarang ini perhitungan koreksi terrain

dilakukan dengan bantuan komputer, salah
satunya adalah Metoda Integrasi Numerik.

Hidartan
TERRAIN CORRECTION CALCULATION FLOW CHART

Topographic
Gravity
Map
Observation

Station Digitizing,
Position X, Y, Z Gridding and
Merging

N Projection
System Similar to
the Map

Transformation
of the Coordinate

Terrain Correction
Hidartan
 NW

A
RIVER

D
HILLROCK

m
65
B

Sketch measurement topographic for Terrain Correction Hidartan

Dua persoalan terlebih dahulu harus dipecahkan untuk
dapat melakukan komputasi koreksi terrain.
Pertama adalah bagaimana menghitung efek gaya berat
yang ditimbulkan oleh suatu badan massa tiga dimensi
dengan bentuk yang tak beraturan.
Efek gaya berat yang disebabkan oleh massa
bervolume V terhadap suatu titik dengan koordinat
(Xo,Yo,Zo) dapat dihitung dengan persamaan :

 
g X 0 , Y0 , Z0    v ZR
3/ 2
dx dy dz …(1)

R
2

 X  X0  2

 Y  Y0  2

 Z  Z0  2

dengan :  : konstanta gravitasi

 : densitas
Hidartan
Kesulitan utama dalam memecahkan
persamaan integral di atas disebabkan
karena batas-batas integralnya, yang berupa
permukaan bumi, bentuknya tidak beraturan.
Pada metoda konvensional, persamaan
dipecahkan secara analitik dengan
pendekatan yang menggunakan bentuk-
bentuk geometri sederhana seperti silinder,
kerucut, dan sebagainya.
Dengan komputer, kita dapat menghitung
persamaan integral secara numerik yang
batas integralnya dapat mendekati bentuk
permukaan bumi secara lebih teliti.
Hidartan
INTEGRASI NUMERIK
Apabila persamaan (1) ditulis dalam koordinat silinder
maka bentuknya adalah sebagai berikut :
 2 r2 h
3/ 2
g ( ro ,  o )       rZR … (2)
 1 r1 o
2 2 2
R r z

h  Z ( r , )  Z o

dengan Zo : elevasi stasiun

Hidartan
Bentuk ini lebih sesuai digunakan, karena
koreksi terrain biasanya dihitung untuk
daerah yang berbentuk lingkaran dalam
radius beberapa kilometer dari titik stasiun.
Lebih lanjut persamaan (2) dapat
disederhanakan menjadi persamaan (3) :

  2 r2 
 
   
r
g ro ,  o    r2  r1    drd 
  1 r1
2 2 
 r h 

Hidartan
Suku kedua dapat dihitung secara numerik apabila
nilai h dapat diketahui pada titik-titik sampel integrasi.
Teknik integrasi yang digunakan adalah metoda
Quadratur Gauss dengan bentuk umum :

1 1 m n
 
  G   ,  d d    Wi W j Gi , j 
1 1 i 1 j 1
Wi, Wj : koefisien bobot
i,  j : titik sampel integrasi
Dalam hal ini G(i,j) merupakan fungsi dari beda elevasi h
yang harus dihitung untuk sembarang titik dengan teknik
interpolasi.
Hidartan
 MODEL TOPOGRAFI

Untuk mendapatkan nilai elevasi di setiap titik

pada daerah integrasi, dilakukan interpolasi.
Teknik ini hanya memerlukan nilai elevasi pada
titik - titik tertentu, kemudian dihitung fungsi
hampiran sehingga elevasi dapat dihitung :
h = f( x,y ).
Teknik interpolasi berupa pencocokan
permukaan (surface fitting) yang tingkat
ketelitiannya bervariasi untuk tiap metodanya.
Seperangkat data elevasi dan persamaan
pencocokan permukaannya merupakan satu
model topografi.
Hidartan
Model topografi yang digunakan dibangun berdasarkan
data elevasi pada titik-titik kasa (grid).
Metoda pencocokan permukaan yang digunakan adalah
persamaan multi-quadric dengan persamaan :

n  2 2 1/ 2
  
Z ( X , Y )   C j  X j  X   Y j  Y  
j 1
 

Persamaan ini menyatakan bahwa elevasi suatu titik di

dalam daerah data adalah kombinasi linier dari fungsi-
fungsi permukaan kerucut, yang titik puncaknya
merupakan elevasi titik-titik yang diketahui.
Fungsi Z(x,y) adalah permukaan yang smooth dan
melalui setiap titik data.
Hidartan
Koefisien kerataan (flatness coefficient) Cj
didapat dari pemecahan persamaan linier
berikut :
[A] C = Z

dimana :

 2 2  1/ 2
  
 ij   x j  x i    y j  y i  
 
i = 1,2,3, ... n
j = 1,2,3, ... n
Zi : elevasi yang diketahui
Hidartan
 Y-axis PRIHADI SA / 2002

X-axis

P (0,0,0)
Z Top

Body M

H G
F
 Contour at depth Z
E

A
B
C D

Z Bottom

Z-axis

Penentuan gravity pada satu titik dari suatu bentuk tiga dimensi yang tak beraturan
Hidartan
Hidartan
 2. GRAVITY PROFILES

Gravity profile will be produced for each line

using its reduced data to present the trend of
gravity values along the line.

3. GRAVITY MAP

Consists of CBA/BA anomaly map, regional

gravity map, residual gravity map.

HIdartan
 Density of Common Geologic Material ( Telford et al. 1990 )

Density range Approximate average

3
No. Material Type ( Mg / m ) density ( Mg / m 3 )

Unconsolidated Sediment
1. Alluvium 1.96 - 2.00 1.98
2. Clay 1.63 - 2.60 2.21
3. Gravel 1.70 - 2.40 2.00
4. Loess 1.40 - 1.93 1.64
5. Silt 1.80 - 2.20 1.93
6. Soil 1.20 - 2.40 1.92

Sedimentary Rocks
7. Sand 1.70 - 2.30 2.00
8. Sandstone 1.61 - 2.76 2.35
9. Shale 1.77 - 3.20 2.40
10. Limestone 1.93 - 2.90 2.55
11. Dolomite 2.28 - 2.90 2.70
12. Chalk 1.53 - 2.60 2.01
13. Halite 2.10 - 2.60 2.22
14. Glacier Ice 0.88 - 0.92 0.90

Igneous Rocks
15. Rhyolite 2.35 - 2.70 2.52
16. Granite 2.50 - 2.81 2.64
17. Andesite 2.40 - 2.80 2.61
18. Syenite 2.60 - 2.95 2.77
19. Basalt 2.70 - 3.30 2.99
20. Gabbro 2.70 - 3.50 3.03

Metamorphic Rocks
21. Schist 2.39 - 2.90 2.64
22. Gneiss 2.59 - 3.00 2.80
23. Phylite 2.68 - 2.80 2.74
24. Slate 2.70 - 2.90 2.79
25. Granulite 2.52 - 2.73 2.65
26. Amphibolite 2.90 - 3.04 2.96
27. Eclogite 3.20 - 3.54 3.37

hidartan
( from John M. Reynolds, An Introduction to Applied and Environmental Geophysics, 1997 )
 Densities of Minerals and Miscellaneous Materials ( Telford et al, 1990 )

Density Range Approximate average density

No. Material Type ( Mg/m 3)
( Mg / m3 )

Metallic minerals
1. Oxides, Carbonates
A. Manganite 4.2 - 4.4 4.32
B. Chromite 4.2 - 4.6 4.36
C. Magnetite 4.9 - 5.2 5.12
D. Haematite 4.9 - 5.3 5.18
E. Cuprite 5.7 - 6.15 5.92
F. Cassiterite 6.8 - 7.1 6.92
G. Woframite 7.1 - 7.5 7.32
H. Uraninite 8.0 - 9.97 9.17
2. Copper n.d 8.7
3. Silver n.d 10.5
4. Gold 15.6 - 19.4 17.0
5. Sulphides
A. Malachite 3.9 - 4.03 4.0
B. Stannite 4.3 - 4.52 4.4
C. Pyrrhotite 4.5 - 4.8 4.65
D. Molybdenite 4.4 - 4.8 4.7
E. Pyrite 4.9 - 5.2 5.0
F. Cobaltite 5.8 - 6.3 6.1
G. Galena 7.4 - 7.6 7.5
H. Cinnabar 8.0 - 8.2 8.1

Non-metallic minerals
6. Gypsum 2.2 - 2.6 2.35
7. Bauxite 2.3 - 2.55 2.45
8. Kaolinite 2.2 - 2.63 2.53
9. Baryte 4.3 - 4.7 4.47

Miscellaneous materials
10. Snow 0.05 - 0.88 n.d
11. Petroleum 0.6 - 0.9 n.d
12. Lignite 1.1 - 1.25 1.19
13. Anthracite 1.34 - 1.8 1.50
Hidartan
 DATA REDUCTION TABLE
Date Time Station Reading G-obs Latitude Longitude Elevation G-normal Comb. Corr Terrain Corr. BA CBA
(mgal) (mgal) (degree) (degree) (m) (mgal) (mgal) Inner Outer (mgal) (mgal)

Hidartan
GRAVITY DATA SHEET

Hidartan
COMBINE GRAVITY DATA SHEET Hidartan
 DENSITY Hidartan

DETERMINATION
Hidartan
Hidartan
148

146 GRAVITASI
ANOMALI
LHD-3
BOUGUER
144
rapat massa = 2.67
gr/cm3
LHD-2
142
U
LHD-1 LHD-5 LHD-7

140

LHD-4,8,9,10 LHD-6

138

2 km
136

134

132
696 698 700 702 704 706 708 710 712 Hidartan
148

146

GRAVITASI
LHD-3
ANOMALI
144
REGIONAL
POLINOM FIT
LHD-2
142 ORDE - 2
LHD-1 LHD-5
LHD-5 LHD-7

U
140

LHD-6
LHD-4,8,9,10

138

2 km
136

134

132
Hidartan
696 698 700 702 704 706 708 710 712
148

146

LHD-3
144 GRAVITASI
ANOMALI SISA
LHD-2
142 U
LHD-1 LHD-5 LHD-7

140

LHD-4,8,9,10 LHD-6

138
2 km

136

134

132
Hidartan
696 698 700 702 704 706 708 710 712
 10.0

GRAVITASI
ANOMALI SISA (MGAL)

data
5.0
PROFIL
perhitungan
ANOMALI
SISA
DAN
0.0
MODEL
2-DIMENSI
-5.0
132 136 140 144 148

SELATAN UTARA

LHD-4 LHD-5 LHD-2 LHD-3

1.0
andesit basaltik terubah (2.5 gr/cc)

tuffa, ignimbrite (2.0 gr/cc)

0.0

andesit (2.6 gr/cc)

ELEVASI (KM)

-1.0 sedimen (2.2 gr/cc)

andesit (2.67 gr/cc)

-2.0
intrusi diorit (2.9 gr/cc)

Hidartan
-3.0
 10.0

GRAVITASI
ANOMALI SISA (MGAL)

data
5.0
PROFIL
perhitungan
ANOMALI
SISA
DAN
0.0
MODEL
2-DIMENSI
-5.0
696 700 704 708 712

BARAT TIMUR

LHD-5 LHD-7
1.0 LHD-1
andesit basaltik terubah (2.5 gr/cc)

tuffa, ignimbrite (2.0 gr/cc)

0.0

andesit (2.6 gr/cc)

ELEVASI (KM)

-1.0 andesit (2.67 gr/cc)

intrusi diorit (2.9 gr/cc)

-2.0

PRIHADI SA / 2002
-3.0