A TDR measures reflections along a conductor.

In
order to measure those reflections, the TDR will
transmit an incident signal onto the conductor and
listen for its reflections. If the conductor is of a
uniform impedance and is properly terminated,
then there will be on reflections and the remaining
incident signal will be absorbed at the far-end by the
termination. Instead, if there are impedance
variations, then some of the incident signal will be
reflected back to the source. A TDR is similar in
principle to radar.
TDR operates in a fashion similar to radar. A short
duration pulse with a fast rise time is propagated
down a cable, then the time for a portion of that
signal to return to the source is measured. This
return signal is sometimes called an echo.
The exact distance between the impairment and
the source can be determined using the following
mathematical relationships:
𝑣∗𝑡
d=
2
Where:
d= distance to the discontinuity(meters)
v=actual velocity (meters/sec.)
v=k  c (meters/sec.)
c=velocity in a vacuum(3108 meters/sec.)
t=elapsed time (seconds)
The elapsed time is measured from the leading
edge of the transmitted pulse to the reception of
the reflected signal as shown. It is important that
the transmitted pulse be as narrow as possible.
Otherwise, when the impairment is located close
to the source, the reflected signal could return
while the pulse is still being transmitted, making
it difficult to detect.
Time domain reflectometers are commonly used for
in-place testing of very long cable runs, where it is
impractical to dig up or remove what may be a
kilometers-long cable. They are indispensable for
preventive maintenance of telecommunication lines,
as TDR’s can detect resistance on joints and
connectors as they corrode, and increasing insulation
leakage as it degrades and absorbs moisture, long
before either leads to catastrophic failures. Using a
TDR, it is possible to pin point a fault to within
centimeters.
Microstrip is a type of electrical transmission line
which can be fabricated using printed circuit board
technology, and is used to convey microwave -
frequency signals. It consists of a conducting strip
separated from a ground plane by a dielectric layer
known as the substrate. Microwave components
such as antennas, couplers, filters, power dividers etc.
can be formed from microstrip, with the entire
device existing as the pattern of metallization on the
substrate.
The formula for calculating the characteristic
impedance of an unbalanced microstrip line:

87 5.98 ℎ
Zo = ln ( )
+1.41 0.8𝑤+𝑡
Where:

Zo =characteristic impedance (ohms)

=dielectric constant ( FR-4 fiberglass = 4.5 and
Teflon = 3 )
w=width of copper trace
t= thickness of copper trace
h= distance between copper trace and the ground
plane (thickness of dielectric)
Stripline is simply a flat conductor sandwiched
between two ground planes. It is likely to radiate;
thus losses stripline are lower than with microstrip.
Stripline is a transverse electromagnetic (TEM)
transmission line medium invented by Robert M.
Barrett of the Air Force Cambridge Research Centre in
the 1950s. Stripline is the earliest form of planar
transmission line.
The characteristic impedance of stripline:

60 4𝑑
Zo = ln ( )
 0.67 𝑤(0.8+𝑡/ℎ
Where:
Zo =characteristic impedance (ohms)
=dielectric constant ( FR-4 fiberglass = 4.5
and Teflon = 3 )
d= dielectric thickness
w= width of conducting copper trace
t= thickness of conducting copper trace
h= distance between copper trace and
ground plane.