COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology
Bhopal- 462003 (M.P.)
 POLYMERS
A polymer is a large molecule or macromolecule,
composed of many repeated subunits , due to their
broad range of properties.

Polymers range from familiar synthetic plastics such

as polystyrene to natural biopolymers such
as DNA and proteins that are fundamental to
biological structure and function.
 METALS

A metal is a material that, when freshly prepared,

polished, or fractured, shows a lustrous
appearance, and
conducts electricity and heat relatively well.
 CERAMICS

• A ceramic is a solid material comprising

an inorganic compound of metal, non-
metal or ionic and covalent bonds.

• Common examples are earthenware, porcelain,

and brick.
 COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Composite materials (composites) are made

when two or more materials with different
properties are combined to produce a new
material.

The physical and chemical properties of each of

the constituent materials remain distinct in the
new material
Essential requirements for composite:

1) It is made of two or more chemically different

material.

2) These two or more than two materials

combined macroscopically.

3) The properties of final product should be

significantly different that of individual
constituent.
 Particle Reinforced Composite
• Particulate reinforced composites achieve gains in
stiffness primarily, but also can achieve increases
in strength and toughness.

• Particulate reinforced composites find

applications where high levels of wear resistance
are required such as road surfaces.

• The principal advantage of particle reinforced

composites is their low cost and ease of
production and forming
PARTICLE REINFORCED COMPOSITE
 Fiber Reinforced Composite
• Fibre reinforced composites are classed as
either continuous (long fibres) or
discontinuous (short fibres).
• When the fibres are aligned they provide
maximum strength but only along the direction
of alignment. The composite is considerably
weaker along other directions and is therefore
highly anisotropic
Continuous Discontinuous Discontinuous
(Aligned) (Random)
 Structural Composite

A structural composite is normally composed of

both homogeneous and composite materials, the
properties of which depend not only on the
properties of the constituent materials but also on
the geometrical design of the various structural
elements.
STRUCTURAL COMPOSITES
 REINFORCEMENT

Reinforcement material is added to the matrix

material to enhance the physical properties of
the final composite material.

Reinforcement materials usually add rigidity

and enforce the mechanical properties of the
matrix.
 KEY FEATURES
OF REINFORCEMENT

• Discontinuous

• Stronger

• Harder
FUNCTIONS OF REINFORCEMENT

1.Contribute desired properties.

2.Load carrying.

3.Transfer the strength to matrix.

TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT

REINFORCEMENT

Fibers Particulates Whiskers Flakes

 FIBERS

 A filament with L/D very high (of the

order 1000)
A composite with fibre-reinforcement
is called Fibrous Composite.
Small diameters (~10 microns)
Can be polycrystalline or amorphous
CLASSIFICATION FIBERS
OF FIBERS :

Interest of this course !

 CONTINUOUS FIBER

Structural fibres whose length allows

to neglect the end effects when they
are loaded in the composites and to
use them in continuous composite
manufacturing processes.
CONTINUOUS FIBER FIGURE
 DISCONTINUOUS FIBER

The fibers which are shorter than

critical fibers are called
discontinuous fibers. These fibers are
shorter in length and hence less
effective in strengthening the
composite material.
DISCONTINOUS FIBER FIGURE
 UNIDIRECTIONAL FIBER

A unidirectional (UD) fabric is one

in which the majority of fibres run in
one direction only. This results in the
highest possible fibre properties from
a fabric in composite component
construction.
UNIDIRECTIONAL FIBER FIG.
 BIDIRECTIONAL FIBER

Bidirectional: A bi-directional fiber is

one in which fiber runs in two
direction. i.e some fibers run along X
axis and some along Y axis.
BIDIRECTIONAL FIBER
FIGURE
THREE DIMENSIONAL FIBER

3D fibers: The composites in which

fibers runs in all three directions i.e
along X axis, Y axis and Z axis.
THREE DIMENSIONAL FIBER
FIGURE
 WOVEN FIBERS

Woven Composites Fibers placed in

the thickness direction are called z-
yarn, warp weaver, or binder yarn for
3D woven fabrics.
WOVEN FIBERS FIGURE
 RANDOM FIBER

Random fiber: This is also

called discrete, (or chopped) fibers.
The strength will not be as high as
with aligned fibers, however, the
advantage is that the material will
be istropic and cheaper.
RANDOM FIBER FIGURE
 PREFERED FIBER

Prefered fiber: These are

discontinous small sized fibers with
two layers of fibers combines
togeather to give origin to some new
arrangements of fibers.
PREFFERED FIBER FIGURE
 SINGLE LAYER FIBER

SINGLE layer fiber: In single layer

fibers, strand of fiber is only single.
They are generally used for thin
composites with relatively low
strength.
SINGLE LAYER FIBER FIGURE
MULTI LAYER CONTINOUS FIBER

Multi layer continous fiber: They are

generally used for high strength
composites in which fibers are
present in multiple layers one over
the other.
MULTI LAYER CONTINOUS FIBER
FIGURE
 LAMINATES FIBERS

A composite laminate is an
assembly of layers
of fibrous composite materials which
can be joined to provide
required engineering properties,
including in-plane stiffness, bending
stiffness, strength, and coefficient of
thermal expansion.
LAMINATES FIBERS FIGURE
 HYBRID FIBERS
Hybrid fiber composites are
those composites which have a combination of
two or more reinforcement fibres. The most
common hybrid composites are carbon-
aramid reinforced epoxy (which combines
strength and impact resistance) and glass-
carbon reinforced epoxy (wich gives a strong
material at a reasonable price)
HYBRID FIBERS FIGURE
PARTICULATE REINFORCEMENT

•Particulate reinforcement – non

fibrous with no long dimension.

•A composite with particles as

reinforcement is called Particulate
Composite.
PARTICULATE REINFORCEMENT

A particulate reinforcemnet is
characterized as being composed of
particles suspended in a matrix.
Particles can have virtually any shape,
size or configuration.
 PARTICULATE
REINFORCEMENT FIGURES
 WHISKERS REINFORCEMENT
Whiskers – nearly perfect single crystal fibre
Short, discontinuous, polygonal cross-section

#very small diameter (~1 micron) single crystals

#strong because they are virtually flaw free
#expensive
#difficult to put in a matrix
#examples include graphite (C), SiN, Al2O3, SiC
WHISKERS REINFORCEMENT
FIGURE
 FLAdKES

Flakes are in flat platelet form and have a

primarily two-dimensional geometry with
strength and stiffness in two directions. They
can form an effective composite material
when suspended in a glass or plastic.
FLAKES FIGURE
 CARBON NANOTUBES

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are allotropes

of carbon.
They exhibit extraordinary strength
and unique electrical properties, and
are efficient conductors of heat. Their
final usage, however, may be limited
by their potential toxicity.
CARBON NANOTUBES DIGRAM
 PROPERTIES

• Strength
• Electrical
• Thermal
• Defects
• One-Dimensional Transport
• Toxicity
 MATRIX

The matrix is the monolithic material into

which the reinforcement is embedded, and is
completely continuous.

This means that there is a path through the

matrix to any point in the material, unlike two
materials sandwiched together.
• In structural applications, the matrix is usually a
lighter metal such as aluminum, magnesium,
or titanium, and provides a compliant support for
the reinforcement.

• The matrix binds the fiber reinforcement, transfers

loads between fibers, gives the composite
component its net shape and determines its surface
quality.
• A composite matrix may be a polymer, ceramic, metal
or carbon. Polymer matrices are the most widely used
for composites in commercial and high-performance
aerospace applications.

• Carbon as a matrix is used in extreme high-

temperature applications, such as carbon/carbon
brakes and rocket nozzles.
 METAL MATRIX
COMPOSITES

• Metal matrix composites (MMCs) comprise a

relatively wide range of materials defined by the
metal matrix, reinforcement type, and reinforcement
geometry.

• In the area of the matrix, most metallic systems have

been explored for use in metal matrix composites,
including Al, Be, Mg, Ti, Fe, Ni, Co, and Ag.
 IMPORTANCE OF MMC

MMC possess superior combinations of elevated-

temperature capabilities namely

 Good thermal conductivity .

 High strength and stiffness.
 High strength-to-density ratio.
 Low coefficient of thermal expansion.
Over last two decades researchers and manufacturers, i.e.,
automotive and aerospace, have paid attentions and interests to
metal–matrix composites (MMC) owing to their unique
physical/mechanical properties and performance.

Metal matrix composites (MMCs), by virtue of their low

density, high strength-to-weight ratio, high temperature
strength retention, and excellent creep, fatigue and wear
resistances, have the potential for replacing cast iron and other
materials in engines and brakes.
Typically, MMCs considered for automotive applications contain
either silicon carbide (SiC), aluminum oxide (Al2O3) or other
ceramic particles or short fibers in a light alloy, such as
aluminum, magnesium and titanium.

MMCs have been developed for use in diesel engine pistons,

cylinder liners, brake drums and brake rotors. Other potential
applications where MMCs have been tried are connecting
rods, piston pins and drive shafts. The major impediment toward
their wider use is their high cost.
INTERFACE IN METAL MATRICES
 IMPORTANT MMC’S

A variety of metals and their alloys can be used as

matrix materials some of the more common ones are
 Aluminium alloys

 Titanium alloys

 Magnesium alloys

 Copper alloys
 Aluminium alloys

The reinforcement in AMCs could be in the form of

continuous/discontinuous fibres, whisker or particulates, in
volume fractions ranging from a few percent to 70%.

Properties of AMCs can be tailored to the demands of different

industrial applications by suitable combinations of matrix,
reinforcement and processing route.
• 1000 Series is the most pure of aluminum—required to have 99%
minimum aluminum

• 2000 Series aluminum is mixed with copper alloys and is often

used for aircraft and aerospace industries.

• 3000 Series is mixed with manganese and is very “formable” and

heat treatable. This aluminum alloy is often used for cookware and
heat exchangers in power plants and vehicles.

• 4000 Series mixes aluminum with silicon, allowing for a lower

melting point which improves fluidity when molten (sort of a fancy
way of saying it melts well).
• 5000 Series aluminum is mixed with magnesium (different
than manganese) and has both a high tensile strength and
formability.

• 6000 Series is mixed with magnesium and silicone and

used predominately in the form of extrusions and structural
components like angles, beams and tubes.

• 7000 Series is mixed with zinc alloys. It comprises very

high strength aluminum.
In case of metal matrices composites, aluminium and
its alloys are widely used. Aluminium and its alloys
provide the use of different reinforce and improve
materials.

The basic advantages of composite materials with

aluminium matrices in relation to materials without
reinforce materials are
• Higher strength

• Higher stiffness

• Reduced density(weight)

• Improved properties at high temperatures

• Controlled thermal expansion coefficient

• Controlled heating of material

 Titanium alloys

Titanium matrix composites (TMCs) consist of a

titanium matrix containing continuous reinforcing fibers.

The principal attractions of TMCs are strength and

stiffness. On a density-corrected basis, continuous fiber
(SiC) reinforced TMCs have about twice the ultimate
strength and the stiffness of conventional titanium alloys.
The common TMCs can be categorized into two groups
depending on the form of reinforcements

 Continuously reinforced TMCs

 Discontinuously reinforced TMCs

• Titanium matrix composites (TMCs) offer high specific strength
and stiffness compared with steel and nickel-base materials.

• High-temperature TMCs can offer up to 50% weight reduction

relative to monolithic superalloys while maintaining equivalent
strength and stiffness in jet engine propulsion systems.
Magnesium alloys
Magnesium matrix composites are potential materials for
various applications of aerospace and defence organisations
due to their low density, good mechanical and physical
properties.

The improvement of specific strength, stiffness, damping

behaviour, wear behaviour, creep and fatigue properties are
significantly influenced by the addition of reinforcing
elements into the metallic matrix compared with the
conventional engineering materials.
• Light weight

• Good stiffness to weight ratio

• Low density (two thirds that of aluminium)

• Good high temperature mechanical properties

• Good to excellent corrosion resistance

 PEEK
• Polyether ether ketone (PEEK) is a
colourless organic thermoplastic polymer
in the polyaryletherketone (PAEK) family,
used in engineering applications.
• PEEK is a semicrystalline thermoplastic
with excellent mechanical and chemical
resistance properties that are retained to
high temperatures.
Polyether ether ketone
• The processing conditions used to mold
PEEK can influence the crystallinity, and
hence the mechanical properties.

• The Young's modulus is 3.6 GPa and its

tensile strength 90 to 100 MPa. PEEK has a
glass transition temperature of around 143
°C (289 °F) and melts around 343 °C (662
°F).
• Some grades have a useful operating temperature
of up to 250 °C (482 °F) . It is highly resistant to
thermal degradation as well as attack by both
organic and aqueous environments.

• It is attacked by halogens and strong acids as well

as some halogenated compounds and aliphatic
hydrocarbons at high temperatures.

• It dissolves completely in concentrated sulfuric

acid at room temperature.
• Because of its robustness, PEEK is used to
fabricate items used in demanding
applications, including bearings, piston parts,
pumps, HPLC columns, compressor plate
valves, and cable insulation.

• It is one of the few plastics compatible with

ultra-high vacuum applications. It is
extensively used in the aerospace,
automotive, and chemical process industries.
 Beneficial Properties

• Good dimensional stability

• Superior Chemical resistance
• Superior wear & friction resistance
• High mechanical strength
• Superior resistance to gamma and X-rays
• High vacumn applications
 Applications
• Nuclear environments
• Oil & Geothermal wells
• Chemical industries
• High pressure valves
• Food processing equipment
• High Vacuum plant
 PESU (Polyethersulphone)
• It is a class of high temperature
thermoplastics which contains a common
structural unit “diphenyl sulfone”.
• The polymers of this family (standard PSU,
polyaryl sulfone, polyether sulfone,
polyphenyl sulfone) are characterized by
extraordinary, inherent flame retardancy
and high transparency.
 Molecular Structure of
Polyethersulfone
Molecular Formula: (C12H8O3S)n
• It one of the high-temperature engineering thermoplastics
in the polysulfone family.

• It is an amorphous, transparent thermoplastic.

• It is rigid, tough, and dimensionally stable over a wide

temperature range.
• An amorphous polymer which possesses
bonds of high thermal and oxidative
stability.

• Sulfone group provides high temperature

performance.

• Ether linkage contributes toward practical

processing by allowing mobility of the
polymer chain when in the melt phase.
• It has outstanding long-term resistance to
creep at temperatures up to 150°C.

• It is superior to polysulfone, phenylene

oxide-based resins, or polycarbonate in
terms of creep.
• It can be easily processed and exhibits low
mold shrinkage.

• It is also capable of being used continuously

under load at temperatures of up to about
180°C and in some low-stress applications to
200°C. As constant stress of 3000 psi at 20°C
for 3 years produces a strain of 1%, where as
a stress of 6500 psi results only 2.6% over the
same time period.
• Good optical clarity
• Very good hydrolytic and sterilization
resistance
• Biocompatibility
• Excellent insulation properties
• Outstanding rigidity even at high
temperatures
CERAMIC MATRIX COMPOSITE(CMC)

CMC stands for Ceramic Matrix

Composite, and these materials are
considered a subgroup of both
ceramics and composite materials.
Composite materials are comprised of
at least two parts:

The Reinforcement :which provides

special mechanical properties such as
stiffness or strength

Matrix :which holds everything

together.
In the case of a ceramic matrix
composite, both the reinforcing material
(sometimes referred to as refractory
fibers) and the matrix material are
ceramics.

In some instances, the same ceramic

material may be used for both the
matrix and the fibers.
 CMC Reinforcing Materials
Typical reinforcing fiber materials
include the following:
• Carbon, C
• Silicon Carbide, SiC
• Alumina, Al2O3
• Mullite or Alumina Silica, Al2O3-
SiO2
The fibers can take many different
forms, including the more traditional
continuous fiber as well as short fibers,
particles, whiskers, and nanofibers.

The use of whiskers and short fibers

improves the CMC’s resistance to crack
propagation and its overall toughness
but can result in catastrophic failure.
 Long, or continuous, fiber
reinforcement provides better
strengthening than whiskers or short
fibers.

The use of long fibers also results in

better toughness
CERAMIC MATRIX Machining of CMC BLADES
COMPOSITE
The most commonly used CMCs
include:

• C/C
• C/SiC
• SiC/SiC
• Al2O3/Al2O3
 CMC APPLICATIONS

• There is an extremely wide range of

CMC applications, such as:
• Heat exchangers
• Turbine blades
• High-performance braking systems
 What Makes CMCs Different?

Ceramic matrix composites behave

much differently from conventional
ceramics, and are far different from the
high-performance metal alloys that
used to be implemented.
Like ceramics, they are hard and stable
at higher temperatures.

They are also very lightweight and

possess significantly greater fracture
toughness and thermal shock
resistance.
they are ultra-lightweight, extremely
durable, and can perform at extreme
temperatures.
Manufacturing Processes of
Composites

There are three types of composite

manufacturing process.

(i) Open Moulding

(ii) Closed Moulding

(iii) Cast Polymer Moulding

 Open Moulding
• Hand layup

• Spray up

• Filament Winding
 Hand layup

• Hand lay-up is the most common and least expensive

open-moulding method because it requires the least
amount of equipment.

• Fiber reinforcements are placed by hand in a mould

and resin is applied with a brush or roller.

• This process is used to make both large and small

items, including boats, storage tanks, tubs and
showers.
 Process
• Gel coat is first applied to
the mould using a spray
gun for a high quality
surface.

• When the gel coat has

cured sufficiently, roll stock
fiberglass reinforcement is
manually placed on the
mould. The laminating
resin is applied by pouring,
brushing, spraying, or using
a paint roller.
• FRP rollers, paint rollers, or squeegees are
used to consolidate the laminate,
thoroughly wetting the reinforcement
and removing entrapped air. Subsequent
layers of fiberglass reinforcement are
added to build laminate thickness.

• Low density core materials such as end-

grain balsa, foam, and honeycomb, are
commonly used to stiffen the laminate.
This is known as sandwich construction.
 Moulds

• Simple, single cavity moulds of fiberglass

composites construction are generally used.

• Moulds can range from small to very large

and are low cost in the spectrum of
composites moulds.
 Spray-Up
• Spray-up, or chopping, is an open mould
method similar to hand lay-up in its suitability
for making boats, tanks, transportation
components, and tub/shower units in a large
variety of shapes and sizes.

• A chopped laminate has good conformability

and is sometimes faster to produce than a
part made with hand lay-up when moulding
complex shapes.
 Process
• In the spray-up process, the operator
controls thickness and consistency,
therefore the process is more operator
dependent than hand lay-up.

• Although production volume per mould is

low, it is feasible to produce substantial
production quantities using multiple
moulds.
• This process uses simple, low cost
tooling and simple processing. Portable
equipment permits on-site fabrication
with virtually no part size limitations.

• The process may be automated.

• As with hand lay-up, gel coat is first applied
to the mould and allowed to cure.
• Continuous strand glass roving and
initiated resin are then fed through a
chopper gun, which deposits the resin-
saturated “chop” on the mould.
• The laminate is then rolled to thoroughly
saturate the glass strands and compact the
chop. Additional layers of chop laminate
are added as required for thickness.
• Roll stock reinforcements, such as
woven roving or knitted fabrics, can be
used in conjunction with the chopped
laminates.

• Core materials of the same variety as

used in hand lay-up are easily
incorporated.
 Mould

• These are the same moulds as hand lay-up:

simple, single cavity moulds of fiberglass
composites construction.

• Moulds can range from small to very large

and are low cost in the spectrum of
composites moulds.
 Filament Winding
• Filament winding is an automated open
moulding process that uses a rotating
mandrel as the mould.

• The male mould configuration produces a

finished inner surface and a laminate surface
on the outside diameter of the product.
• Filament winding results in a high degree of
fiber loading, which provides high tensile
strength in the manufacture of hollow,
generally cylindrical products such as
chemical and fuel storage tanks, pipes,
stacks, pressure vessels, and rocket motor
cases.
• The process makes high strength-to-weight
ratio laminates and provides a high degree
of control over uniformity and fiber
orientation.
• The filament winding process can be used to make
structures that are highly engineered and meet strict
tolerances. Because filament winding is computer-
controlled and automated, the labor factor for
filament winding is lower than other open moulding
processes.
 Process

• Continuous strand roving is fed through a

resin bath and wound onto a rotating
mandrel.

• The roving feed runs on a trolley that

travels the length of the mandrel.
• The filament is laid down in a
predetermined geometric pattern to
provide maximum strength in the
directions required.

• When sufficient layers have been applied,

the laminate is cured on the mandrel.

• The moulded part is then stripped from

the mandrel.
• Equipment is available for filament winding
on a continuous basis with to axis winding
for pressure cylinders.

• Filament winding can be combined with

the chopping process and is known as the
hoop chop process
 Moulds
• Filament winding uses mandrels of suitable
size and shape, made of steel or aluminium,
to form the inner surface of the hollow part.

• Some mandrels are collapsible to facilitate

part removal.
 Closed Moulding
• In closed-moulding, raw materials (fibers
and resin) cure inside a two-sided mould
or within a vacuum bag (shut off from air).
• Closed-moulding processes are usually
automated and require special equipment,
so they’re mainly used in large plants that
produce huge volumes of material—up to
500,000 parts a year.
 Types of closed moulding
• Vacuum Bag Moulding
• Vacuum Infusion Process
• Resin transfer Moulding
• Compression moulding
• Pultrusion
• Reinforced Reaction Injection Moulding
• Centrifugal Casting
• Continuous Moulding
Vacuum Bag Moulding
• Vacuum bag moulding improves the
mechanical properties of open-mould
laminates.

• This process can produce laminates with a

uniform degree of consolidation, while at
the same time removing entrapped air,
thus reducing the finished void content.
• In the simplest form of vacuum bagging, a
flexible film (PVA, nylon, mylar, or polyethylene)
is placed over the wet lay up, the edges are
sealed, and a vacuum is drawn.

• A more advanced form of vacuum bagging

places a release film over the laminate, followed
by a bleeder ply of fiberglass cloth, non-woven
nylon, polyester cloth, or other material that
absorbs excess resin from the laminate.
• A breather ply of a non woven fabric is
placed over the bleeder ply, and the
vacuum bag is mounted over the entire
assembly.

• Pulling a vacuum from within the bag uses

atmospheric pressure to eliminate voids
and force excess resin from the laminate.
• The addition of pressure further results in
high fiber concentration and provides better
adhesion between layers of sandwich
construction.

• When laying non-contoured sheets of PVC

foam of balsa into a female mould, vacuum
bagging is the technique of choice to ensure
proper secondary bonding of the core to the
outer laminate.

• Moulds are similar to those used for

conventional open mould processes.
Vacuum infusion process
• Vacuum infusion processing is a variation of
vacuum bagging in which the resin is
introduced into the mould after the vacuum
has pulled the bag down and compacted the
laminate.
• Vacuum infusion can produce laminates with
a uniform degree of consolidation, producing
high strength, light-weight structures.
• This process uses the same low-cost tooling
as open moulding and requires minimal
equipment.
• Vacuum infusion offers substantial
emissions reduction compared to either
open moulding or wet lay-up vacuum
bagging.

• The method is defined as having lower than

atmospheric pressure in the mould cavity.

• The reinforcement and core materials are

laid-up dry in the mould by hand, providing
the opportunity to precisely position the
reinforcement.
• When the resin is pulled into the mould
the laminate is already compacted;
therefore, there is no room for excess
resin. Vacuum infusion enables very high
resin-to-glass ratios and the mechanical
properties of the laminate are superior.

• Vacuum infusion is suitable to mould very

large structures and is considered a low-
volume moulding process.
 Process

• The mould may be gel coated in the

traditional fashion.
• After the gel coat cures, the dry
reinforcement is positioned in the
mould. This includes all the plies of the
laminate and core material if required.
• A perforated release film is placed over
the dry reinforcement.
• Next a flow media consisting of a coarse
mesh or a “crinkle” ply is positioned, and
perforated tubing is positioned as a manifold
to distribute resin across the laminate.
• The vacuum bag is then positioned and
sealed at the mould perimeter. A tube is
connected between the vacuum bag and the
resin container. A vacuum is applied to
consolidate the laminate and the resin is
pulled into the mould.
 Compression Moulding

Compression moulding is a high-volume, high-

pressure method suitable for moulding
complex, fiberglass-reinforced polymer parts
on a rapid cycle time.
• The mould set is mounted in a hydraulic or
mechanical moulding press and the moulds
are heated from 250° to 400° F.

• A weighed charge of moulding material is

placed in the open mould. The two halves of
the mould are closed and pressure is
applied.
• Depending on thickness, size, and shape of
the part, curing cycles range from less than
a minute to about five minutes.
• After cure, the mould is opened and the
finished part is removed.
• Typical parts include automobile
components, appliance housings and
structural components, furniture, electrical
components, and business machine
housings and parts.
 Mould
• Tooling usually consists of machined or cast
metal or alloy moulds that can be in either
single or multiple-cavity configurations.

• Steel moulds are hardened and sometimes

chrome plated for enhanced durability.
• The moulds are heated using steam, hot
oil, or electricity. Side cores, provisions for
inserts, and other refinements are often
employed.
• Mould materials include cast of forged
steel, cast iron, and cast aluminium.
• Matched metal moulds can cost 50 times
as much as an FRP open mould and tooling
in the Rs 35,00,000-Rs 3,50,00,000 range is
not uncommon.
 Pultrusion
• Pultrusion is a continuous process for the
manufacture of products having a constant
cross section, such as rod stock, structural
shapes, beams, channels, pipe, tubing,
fishing rods, and golf club shafts.
• Pultrusion produces profiles with
extremely high fiber loading; thus,
pultruded products have high structural
properties.
• The process can be readily automated
and is adaptable to both simple and
complex cross-sectional shapes.

• Very high strengths are possible and

labour costs are low.
 Process

• Continuous strand glass fiber, carbon fiber

or basalt fiber roving, mat, cloth, or
surfacing veil is impregnated in a resin bath
and then pulled (therefore the term pul-
trusion) through a steel die by a powerful
tractor mechanism.
• The steel die consolidates the saturated
reinforcement, sets the shape of the stock,
and controls the fiber/resin ratio.
• The die is heated to rapidly cure the resin.

• Many creels (balls) of roving are positioned

on a rack, and a complex series of
tensioning devices and roving guides direct
the roving into the die.
 Mould
• Hardened steel dies are machined and
include a preform area to do the initial
shaping of the resin-saturated roving.
• The dies include heating which can be
electric or hot oil.
• The latest pultrusion technology uses
direct injection dies, in which the resin is
introduced inside the die, rather than
through an external resin bath.
 Centrifugal Casting
• In centrifugal casting, reinforcements and
resin are deposited against the inside
surface of a rotating mould.

• Centrifugal force holds the materials in

place until the part is cured.
• With centrifugal casting, the outside surface
of the part, which is cured against the inside
surface of the mould, represents the
“finished” surface.

• The interior surface of centrifugally cast parts

can be given an additional coating of “neat”
or pure resin to improve surface appearance
and provide additional chemical resistance in
the part.

• Large diameter composite pipe and tanks are

commercially produced by centrifugal casting.
• Advantages of centrifugal casting include a
finished exterior surface and containment
of volatiles during processing.

• The primary limitations of centrifugal

casting are the ability to spin moulds of
large size and relatively low productivity
per tool.
 Cast Polymer Moulding

• Gel Coated Cultured Stone Moulding

• Solid Surface Moulding

 Gel Coated Cultured Stone
• Gel coat is a specialized polyester resin that
is formulated to provide a cosmetic outer
surface on a composite product and to
provide weatherability for outdoor products.
• Several variations of cultured stone products
are manufactured using a gel coated surface
and a resin-matrix casting process.

• In this process a gel coat film (usually clear) is

sprayed on the mould surface. Once the gel
coat is sufficiently cured, a polyester resin
matrix is blended by adding various types of
fillers to the resin.
• Pigments for both a solid background color
and the look of veins found in natural
stone can be added.

• The resin matrix is then transferred to the

mould, where vibration is applied to level
and compact the matrix. Following the
cure, the part is removed from the mould.
Gel coat is not paint. Paint contains solvents that must
evaporate for the paint to dry.
The ‘solvent’ in gel coat is styrene monomer and/or
methylmethacrylate (acrylic), which cross-links during
curing.

The monomer does not have to leave the system for the gel
coat to cure; in fact, it is beneficial to reduce monomer loss.
• The appearance of the cultured stone
products is determined by the type of filler
used and by the application of colorants to
the matrix.
• Fillers come in a variety of materials.
• Many of the fillers used in the composites
industry are mineral substances.
• Mineral fillers have distinctive shapes that
relate to their chemical structure.
• Marble: The natural marble look is
reproduced by formulating a matrix using
calcium carbonate filler. In some cases,
other fillers or combinations of fillers may
be used. Resin, initiator, filler, and pigment
are mixed to form a solid-color matrix. The
marble veining effect is created by adding
a second pigment to the matrix and
partially mixing it to produce the desired
look.
• Onyx: The process of manufacturing
cultured onyx is similar to that of cultured
marble, except alumina trihydrate (ATH)
filler is used. The cultured onyx matrix
generally has a higher resin content
compared with cultured marble, and the
combination of materials creates a
translucent appearance. Background and
veining pigments are added to the matrix
to produce an onyx stone look.
• Granite: The cultured granite appearance
is created by blending colored chips into
the resin matrix. These chips can be made
from cultured marble castings,
thermoplastics, or even actual granite
stone that has been ground into particles.
The cultured granite matrix usually consists
of polyester resin, initiator, colored chips,
and ATH filler.
 Solid Surface Moulding
• Solid surface is a void-free casting made
from a blend of polyester resin or acrylic
resin, initiator, ATH, color chips, and
pigment.
• Solid surface can be formulated to achieve
a wide variety of looks and cosmetic
effects, such as simulating natural granite
stone.
• For this reason, it is often used to
manufacture products like kitchen
• In contrast to the gel coated surface of
cultured marble, solid surface parts are
homogeneous throughout.

• This makes it possible to join fabricated

pieces with inconspicuous seams and to
repair and refinish the surface to its original
condition.
• Solid surface, or densified, castings are
made using vacuum-mixing techniques to
produce a matrix that is void free.
• This produces a material that presents a
uniform surface when it is cut, sanded, or
bonded.
• Solid surface castings are post-cured at
elevated temperatures (in the range of 200
degrees Fahrenheit) to enhance the
physical properties of the matrix and
produce a stable product.
• Solid surface can be compression moulded,
which is a high-pressure, closed-moulding
process suitable for moulding high
volumes of complex solid surface parts.

• The compression moulding process uses

matched metal-heated moulds mounted in
large hydraulic presses.
• Compression moulding produces fast
moulding cycles and high part uniformity but
requires a high capital investment in tooling
and equipment.

• Features such as inserts, ribs, bosses or

attachments can be moulded in.

• Good surface finishes can contribute to lower

part-finishing costs.
• Subsequent trimming and machining
operations are minimized in compression
moulding.
• This process is capital intensive and labor-
efficient.
• Labour costs are low due to the fast cycle
times and reduced post-mould finishing,
while capital costs are high for heated-metal
tooling and moulding presses.
• Compression moulding is a good option for
large production volumes of uniform parts.
 Engineered Stone Moulding

• Engineered stone refers to cast products that

combine natural stone materials with polymer
casting resins.

• These products, by virtue of the actual stone in

the matrix, are the hardest and most durable
product of all consumer-grade cast polymer
products. Features include: high heat
resistance, low thermal expansion, and good
stain or scratch resistance.