CHAPTER 1

A BRIEF HISTORY OF ENERGY

CONSUMPTION
Contents
 INTRODUCTION
 WHAT IS ENERGY?
 HISTORICAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION
 ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND THE QUALITY OF LIFE
 ENERGY IN TRANSITION
 TYPES OF ENERGY RESOURCES
 TYPES OF NON‐RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY
 RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES
 Introduction

 Throughout recorded history, humans have searched for ways of putting energy to work for
them.
~ Humans have found ways of growing food instead of foraging for it out in the wild.
~ Instead of walking, they ride in cars they have built for getting from one place to another.
~ Humans even learned how to send messages electronically instead of using a messenger or
a postal service.
 This quest for faster, easier, and more efficient ways of meeting the needs of a growing human
population has led to increasingly high energy demands.
• But the resources currently used for generating energy are running out.
• The pollution created by the use of these resources is also causing significant damage to
the planet's natural systems.
 For these reasons, people are beginning to turn to alternative energy sources to reduce
pollution while meeting their energy needs.
 Introduction…Cont’d
 We all make decisions about energy.
- We decide how much electricity we will use to heat or cool our
homes.
- We decide how far we will go every day and the mode of
transportation we will use.
- Those of us in democracies choose leaders who create budgets that
can support new energy initiatives or maintain a military capable of
defending energy supply lines.
 Each of these decisions and many others impacts the global consumption of
energy and the demand for available natural resources.
 The purpose of this topic is to give you the information you need to help you
make informed decisions.
 Introduction…Cont’d
 The choices we make today will affect generations to come.
 What kind of future do we want to prepare for them? What kind of
future is possible?
 We can make the best decisions by being aware of our options and the
consequences of our choices.
 In this chapter:
 we consider the location, quantity and accessibility of energy sources.
 We discuss ways to distribute available energy, and examine how our
choices will affect the economy, society, and the environment.
 Our understanding of each of these issues will help us on our journey to energy
independence.
 We begin by defining energy and reviewing our history of energy consumption.
WHAT IS ENERGY?
 Energy is the ability to do work. It can be classified as stored
(potential) energy, and working (kinetic) energy.
 Potential energy: ability to produce motion, and

 kinetic energy: energy of motion.

 Forms of energy include: energy of motion (kinetic energy), heat (thermal
energy), light (radiant energy), photosynthesis (biological energy), stored energy
in a battery (chemical energy), stored energy in a nucleus (nuclear energy), and
stored energy in a gravitational field (gravitational energy).

 Sources of energy: biomass (firewood), fossil fuels (coal, oil, and

natural gas), flowing water (hydroelectric dams), nuclear
materials (uranium), sunlight, and geothermal heat (geysers).
 WHAT IS ENERGY?
 Energy sources may be classified as renewable or non-renewable.
 Non-renewable energy : obtained from sources at a rate that exceeds the rate at
which the sources are replenished. Examples of non-renewable energy sources include
fossil fuels and nuclear fission material such as uranium.
 Renewable energy: obtained from sources at a rate that is less than or equal to the
rate at which the sources are replenished. Examples of renewable energy include solar
energy and wind energy.
 Renewable and non-renewable energy sources are considered primary
energy sources because they provide energy directly from raw fuels. A
fuel is a material which contains one form of energy that can be
transformed into another form of energy.
 Primary energy is energy that has not been obtained by anthropogenic
conversion or transformation. The term “anthropogenic” refers to human
activity or human influence.
 WHAT IS ENERGY?
 Primary energy is often converted to secondary energy for more
convenient use in human systems.
 Hydrogen and electricity are considered secondary sources of energy,
or “carriers” of energy.
 Secondary energy sources are produced from primary sources of energy.
 Secondary sources of energy can store and deliver energy in a useful
form.
 Energy transformation is needed to produce commercial energy.
 coal-fired power plant: Coal stores energy as chemical energy. Combustion, or
burning the coal, transforms chemical energy into heat energy. The heat energy
changes water into steam and increases the energy of motion, or kinetic energy, of the
steam. Flowing steam spins a turbine in a generator. The mechanical energy of the
spinning turbine is converted to electrical energy in the generator.
WHAT IS ENERGY UNITS?
 Energy can be measured by kilocalorie (kcal) or mega-joule
(MJ).
 a 1200 Watt hair dryer uses approximately one mega-joule of energy in
15 minutes.
 A mega-joule is 1 million Joules, which can be written as 106 Joules or
106 J.
 A 100 Watt light bulb uses approximately
one mega-joule of energy in about three hours. [Fanchi, 2004, Exercise
1-3]
 If we run the 1200 Watt hair dryer for one hour, we will use 1.2
kilowatt-hours of energy. We abbreviate 1.2 kilowatt-hours as
1.2 kWh.
 One kWh equals 1 kW times 1 hr, or about 3.6 ×106 J of energy.
 A typical American household will use between 20 and 50 kWh
per day. Energy
WHAT IS ENERGY UNITS?
 Consider that a typical power plant provides approximately 1000 megawatts
of power, which is abbreviated as 1000 MW of power.
 The power plant can provide power to approximately 900,000 households that use
10,000 kWh per year for each household.

 A unit of energy that is commonly used for discussing energy on a national

scale is the quad.

 One quad equals one quadrillion British Thermal Units (BTU) or 1015 BTU.

 A BTU is approximately 1000 Joules, so one quad is approximately 1018 J.

 A quad is comparable in magnitude to global energy values. For example, in

2006 the United States consumed about 100 quads of energy and the world
consumed about 472 quads of energy.
HISTORICAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION

 The history of energy consumption shows how important energy is

to the quality of life for each of us.
 Dependence of Societies on different types of energy in the past.

 Societies change from one energy type to another.

 Global energy consumption can be put in perspective by considering

the amount of energy consumed by individuals.

 E. Cook [1971] provided estimates of daily human energy

consumption at six different periods of societal development.
o From oldest to most recent: Primitive Periodthe Hunting Period  the
Primitive Agricultural Period  the Advanced Agricultural Period  the
Industrial Period  the Technological Period.
HISTORICAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION
• It shows that
personal energy
consumption was
relatively constant
until the Advanced
Agricultural period
when it increased
substantially.
Primitive Period
 Energy is essential for life, and food was the first source of energy.

 Cook assumed the only source of energy consumed by a person

living during the period labeled “Primitive” was food.

 One East African about one million years ago required

approximately 2000 kilocalories (about eight megajoules) of food
per day.

 One food Calorie is equal to one kilocalorie, or 1000 calories.

 One calorie is the amount of energy required to raise the

temperature of one gram of water one degree Centigrade.
Hunting period:

 People learn how to control fire and use wood to

heat and cook.
 Fire provided light at night and could illuminate caves.

 Firewood was the first source of energy for consumption

in a residential setting.

 Cook’s estimate of the daily per capita energy

consumption for Europeans about 100,000 years ago
was 5,000 kilocalories (about 21 megajoules).
The Primitive Agricultural period:

 characterized by the domestication of animals.

 Humans were able to use animals to help
them grow crops and cultivate their fields. The
ability to grow more food than you needed
became the impetus for creating an
agricultural industry.
 Cook’s estimate of the daily per capita energy
consumption for people in the Fertile Crescent
circa 5000 B.C. was 12,000 kilocalories (about
50 MJ)
 Humans continue to use animals to perform
work (Figure 1-1).
Advanced Agricultural period

 More energy was consumed since people learned to use coal, and
built machines to harvest the wind and water.

 People were using wind to push sailing ships, water to drive mills,
and wood and coal for generating heat.

 Transportation became a significant component of energy

consumption by humans.

 Cook’s estimate of the daily per capita energy consumption for

people in northwestern Europe circa 1400 was 26,000 kilocalories
(about 109 megajoules).
 Industrial period

 The steam engine dominated this period. It provided a means of

transforming heat energy to mechanical energy.

 Wood was the first source of energy for generating steam in steam
engines. Coal, a fossil fuel, eventually replaced wood and hay as the
primary energy source in industrialized nations.

 Coal was easier to store and transport than wood. Used for large
vehicles, such as trains and ships.

 Oil another fossil fuel, was also used.

 Cook’s estimate of the daily per capita energy consumption for people in
England circa 1875 was 77,000 kilocalories (about 322 MJ)
ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND THE
QUALITY OF LIFE
 Quality of life is can be quantified in several ways.
 The United Nations calculates a quantity called the Human
Development Index (HDI) to provide a quantitative measure of
the quality of life.
 The HDI measures human development in a country using
three basic factors: health, knowledge, and standard of
living.
ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND THE
QUALITY OF LIFE
 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) accounts for the total output of
goods and services from a nation and is a measure of the
economic growth of the nation.
 The HDI is a fraction that varies from zero to one.
 A value of HDI that approaches zero is considered a relatively
low quality of life, while a value of HDI that approaches one is
considered a high quality of life.
 ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND THE
QUALITY OF LIFE

 A plot of HDI versus per capita

electricity consumption for
all nations with a population of
at least one million people is
shown in Figure 1-3.
 Per capita electricity
consumption = (total
amount of electricity
consumed by the nation)/the
population of the nation.
 Per capita electricity
generation is an estimate of
the average amount of
electricity consumed by each
individual in the nation.
 Cont’d
 Figure above shows that:
 Quality of life, as measured by
HDI, increases as per capita
electricity consumption increases.
 the increase is not linear; the
improvement in quality of life
begins to level off when per
capita electricity consumption
rises to about 4000 kilowatt-
hours.
 Table 1-6 lists per capita
consumption for the 15
countries with the largest UN
HDI.
 ENERGY IN TRANSITION
 Coal was the first fossil fuel to be used on a large scale.
 Britain as the first major economy in the world that
relied on coal.
 Britain was dependent on wood before it switched to coal.
 Coal was the fuel of choice during the Industrial Revolution. It
was used:
 to boil steam for steam turbines and steam engines.
 in transportation to provide a combustible fuel for steam engines on
trains and ships.
 The introduction of the internal combustion engine made it
possible for oil to replace coal as a fuel for transportation.
 Coal is used today to provide fuel for many coal-fired power
plants.
 ENERGY IN TRANSITION

 Today, fossil fuels are still the primary fuels for generating
electrical power.

 But society is becoming increasingly concerned about:

 finite nature of resources

 the environmental impact of fossil fuel combustion (air pollution, acidic rain,
etc).

 As a result, society is in the process of changing the global

energy mix from an energy portfolio that is heavily dependent on
fossil fuels to an energy portfolio that depends on several
energy sources.
ENERGY IN TRANSITION

 The transition process began in the latter half of the 20th century
and is illustrated in Figure below.
 ENERGY IN TRANSITION
From the figure:

In 1940, the world relied on firewood, coal and oil.

Natural gas, energy from water, especially hydropower from dams, and nuclear energy
joined firewood, coal and oil as important contributors to the energy mix by the end of the
20th century.

Other energy sources – identified as wind, solar, biomass, geothermal and waste were
beginning to make an appearance in the global energy mix at the beginning of the 21st
century. They do not appear in the figure because their impact was negligible in the last half
of the 20th century.
 ENERGY IN TRANSITION

 One of the factors that supported the selection of fossil fuels and
nuclear energy as fuels of choice is energy density.

 Energy density is energy contained per unit volume of

material.

 Fossil fuels have relatively large energy densities and have been
preferentially chosen as the raw fuel for power plants.

 Raw fuels such as oil, coal, natural gas, and uranium are present
in nature and can be used to provide primary energy.
 ENERGY IN TRANSITION

 The dominance of fossil fuels in the energy mix at the end of the
20th century is being replaced by a move toward sustainable
energy.

 Sustainable energy is the mix of energy sources that will allow

society to meet its present energy needs while preserving the
ability of future generations to meet their needs.
 ENERGY IN TRANSITION
 World Energy Council shows the total primary energy resource mix in
three different years (1993, 2011, and 2020).
 Cont’d

 Energy forecasts rely on projections of historical trends.

 The future energy mix will look like as given below (based on
history up to 2010):
 Cont’d

 Point to Ponder: Why should I care about the global

distribution of energy?
Suppose a country with a population of 20 million people
wants to provide enough energy to sustain a quality of life
corresponding to HDI of 0.9.
 The country will require 200,000 megajoules per person of
energy each year. This corresponds to approximately 127
power plants with 1000 megawatts capacity each.
 Where will this energy come from?
 Today, energy on a national scale comes primarily from
fossil fuels such as oil, gas and coal
 Cont’d
 If the country does not have significant reserves of fossil fuels
or uranium –a material needed for most nuclear fission reactors
– it will have to import the materials it needs.
 In this case the country is a “have not” country that is dependent on
countries that have the resources and technology it needs.
 This creates an opportunity for “have” countries to manipulate
“have not” countries.
 On the other hand, it creates an incentive for “have not”
countries to use its human resources to take what is needed.
For example, the “have not” country could maintain a large
standing army to influence “have” countries.
 The global distribution of energy influences relationships
between nations and can affect geopolitical stability.
 Types of Energy Resources

 Energy can be classified into several types

based on the following criteria:
 Primary and Secondary energy

 Commercial and Non-commercial Energy

 Renewable and Non-Renewable energy

 Conventional and Non-conventional energy

 Primary and Secondary Energy
 Primary energy is extracted or captured directly from the
environment, while the secondary energy is converted from the
primary energy in the form of electricity, steam, or synthetic
fuel.

 Primary energy sources are those that are either found or stored in
nature. Common primary energy sources are:
 Nonrenewable energy (fossil fuels): coal, crude oil, natural gas,
nuclear fuel.

 Renewable energy: hydropower (rivers and lakes), biomass (such as

wood), solar energy, wind, geothermal (earth heat), and ocean energy,
earth’s gravity, Waste
Energy Transformation/conversion

 Main goal of energy transformations: is to provide

energy services that improve quality of life (e.g.
health, life expectancy and comfort) and productivity.
 Cont’d

 Primary energy sources are transformed in energy conversion processes

to more convenient forms of energy (that can directly be used by
society), such as electrical energy, refined fuels, or synthetic fuels such
as hydrogen fuel.
 In the field of energetics, these forms are called energy carriers and
correspond to the concept of "secondary energy" in energy statistics.

 Electricity and heat are one of the most common energy carriers:
 Energy Carriers also include:
 Solid Fuels: coke, charcoal
 Liquid fuels: petrol, diesel, gasoline, kerosene, LPG, Naphtha,
ethanol
 Gaseous Fuels : propane, hydrogen,
 Biofuels (derived from biomass): bioethanol and biodiesel.
 Primary energy sources Energy systems Energy carriers
(main)
Fossil Oil (or crude Oil refinery Fuel oil
fuels oil)
Non- Coal or Fossil fuel power station Heat or
renewable natural gas electricity
sources
Mineral Natural Nuclear power plant Electricity
fuels uranium

Converted by
Solar energy Photovoltaic power plant Electricity
(see also Solar power)
Solar power tower, solar heat

to
furnace (see also Solar
thermal energy)
Wind energy Wind farm (see also Mechanical work
Renewable Wind power) or electricity
sources Falling and Hydropower plant, wave Mechanical work
flowing water, farm, tidal power station or electricity
tidal energy
Biomass Biomass power station heat or electricity
sources
Geothermal Geothermal power heat or electricity
energy station
Commercial Energy and Non
Commercial Energy

 Commercial Energy
 are available in the market for a definite price.

 Examples: Electricity, lignite, coal, oil, natural gas etc.

 forms the basis of industrial, agricultural, transport and

commercial development in the modern world.

 In the industrialized countries, commercialized fuels are

predominant source not only for economic production, but also
for many household tasks of general population.
Commercial Energy and Non Commercial Energy

 Non-Commercial Energy
 that are not available in the commercial market for a price

 include fuels such as firewood, cattle dung and

agricultural wastes, which are traditionally gathered, and
not bought at a price used especially in rural households.

 These are also called traditional fuels.

 Non-commercial energy is often ignored in energy accounting.

Conventional and Non-conventional Energy
resources:

 Conventional Energy
 are being traditionally used for many decades and were in
common use around oil crisis of 1973 are called conventional
energy resources, e.g., fossil fuel, nuclear and hydro
resources.

 Non-conventional energy
 Non-conventional energy resources which are considered for
large – scale use after oil crisis of 1973, are called non-
conventional energy sources, e.g, solar, wind, biomass, etc.
Renewable and non-renewable energy
sources

 Renewable energy is energy obtained from sources that are replacing

themselves; they are essentially inexhaustible.
 Examples: biomass, wind power, solar power, geothermal energy, tidal power, and
hydroelectric power

 most important feature of renewable energy: it can be harnessed without the release of
harmful pollutants; therefore it is also known as the green energy.

 Non-renewable sources: characterized by long regeneration times, so

long (millions of years) that after they have been exploited they are
considered depleted.
 They are those energy sources that took millions of years to form, like fossil fuels (oil,
coal, natural gas) or when our planet was formed, such as uranium
 In 2012, only 13.5% of the energy consumed in the world
derives from renewable sources. All the rest derives from non-
renewable sources, mainly from fossil fuels (86.7%) and 4.8%
from nuclear plants
TYPES OF NON‐RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY

 Major nonrenewable energy sources are: Fossil Fuels( Coal,

Petroleum, Natural gas), and Nuclear.

 Fossil Fuels are formed from the remains of dead plants and
animals by exposure to heat and pressure in the in the
absence of oxygen in the earth’s crust over hundreds of millions
of years.

 Fossil Fuels currently meet greater than 80% of global energy

demand.
 Cont’d

 Fossil fuels are derived from organic matter which has been trapped and
compressed between layers of sediments within the Earth for millions of
years.

 These deposits, and the materials produced from them, tend to be

highly combustible, making them an ideal energy source.

 They are difficult to obtain as they are typically retrieved through

drilling or mining, but fossil fuels are worth the effort for the sheer
amount of energy they produce.

 Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon.

 Coal

 Coals are sedimentary rocks containing combustible and

incombustible matters as well as water.

 In the life cycle of coal: biomass (decomposes over thousands of

years ) peat (after thousands more years) 
lignite  then coal.

 The most common classification is based on rank, referring to the

degree of coalification that has occurred.

 The rank of a coal is determined primarily by the depth of burial

and temperature to which the coal was subjected over time.
 With increasing temperature, peat is converted
to lignite, a very soft, low-rank coal.
 With further increases in temperature, lignite is
transformed into subbituminous coal and
then into bituminous coal.
 At even higher temperatures anthracites, the
highest rank of coal, are produced.
 The increase in coal rank is accompanied by
increases in the amount of fixed carbon and by
decreases in the amount of moisture and other
volatile material in the coal.
 Generally calorific (heat) value of coal increases
with rank from lignite through bituminous coal.
Composition of Coal
Composition of Coal…cont’d
 Lignite has less than 50% carbon and an energy density lower
than wood.
 Anthracites have more than 90% carbon, while bituminous
coals mostly between 70 and 75%.
 Bituminous coal ignites easily and burns with a relatively long
flame. If improperly fired, bituminous coal is characterized
with excess smoke and soot.
 Anthracite coal is very hard and shiny.
 Anthracite coal is smokeless coal, creates a steady and clean
flame and is preferred for domestic heating.
 Furthermore it burns longer with more heat than the other
types.
 Cont’d
 For countries with rising oil prices coal may become a cheaper
source of energy.

 It was in the 1880s when coal was first used to generate

electricity for homes and factories.

 Since then coal played a major role as source of energy in the

industrial revolution.

 Coal was the most important fuel for power generation in 2011
with a proportion of around 40 %, and therefore more than any
other fuel.
 Cont’d

 Coal has impurities like sulfur and nitrogen and when it burns the
released impurities can combine with water vapor in the air to
form droplets that fall to earth as weak forms of sulfuric and
nitric acid as acid rain.

 Coal also contains minerals, which do not burn and make up the
ash left behind in a coal combustor.
 Cont’d

 Carbon dioxide is one of several gases that can help trap the earth’s
heat and, as many scientists believe, cause the earth’s temperature
to rise and alter the earth’s climate.
 Because of high carbon content, coals generate more CO2 per unit of
released energy than any other fossil fuel such as crude oil.
 Sulfur content of coal is also a drawback.
 However, advanced coal technology can filter out 99% of the tiny
particles, remove more than 95% of the acid rain pollutants, and
reduce the release of carbon dioxide by burning coal more efficiently.
 Many new plants are required to have flue gas desulfurization units
called scrubbers.
 Cont’d
 Despite its poor environmental credentials, coal remains a crucial
contributor to energy supply in the world
 (represents 29-30 % which is second to oil (30-40%)).

 Coal is the most wide-spread fossil fuel around the world, and
more than 75 countries have coal deposits.

 The current share of coal in global electric power generation is

over 40%.

 Coal reserves: (1) United States of America, (2) Russian

Federation, (3) China, (4) Australia, (5) India
 Petroleum (Crude Oil)

 Oil is a naturally occurring flammable liquid consisting of a

complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights,
which define its physical and chemical properties, like heating
value, color, and viscosity.

 The composition of hydrocarbons ranges from as much as 97%

by weight in the lighter oils to as little as 50% in the heavier
oils.

 hydrocarbons in crude oil are mostly alkanes, cycloalkanes and

various aromatic hydrocarbons while the other organic
compounds contain nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and trace amounts
of metals.
Cont’d
 Cont’d

 Alkanes:
 also known as paraffin, are saturated hydrocarbons containing only
carbon and hydrogen and have the general formula CnH2n+2.
 They generally have from 5 to 40 carbon atoms per molecule.
 For example, CH4 represents the methane, which is a major
component of natural gas.
 The propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10) are known as petroleum
gases.
 At the heavier end of the range, paraffin wax is an alkane with
approximately 25 carbon atoms, while asphalt has 35 and up.
 These long chain alkanes are usually cracked by modern refineries
into lighter and more valuable products.
 Cont’d

 Cycloalkanes:
 also known as naphthenes, are saturated hydrocarbons which
have one or more carbon rings to which hydrogen atoms are
attached according to the formula CnH2n.
 Cycloalkanes have similar properties to alkanes but have
higher boiling points.

 Aromatic hydrocarbons:
 are unsaturated hydrocarbons which have one or more
six-carbon rings called benzene rings with double and single
bonds and hydrogen atoms attached according to the formula
CnHn.
 Cont’d

 Oil still remains the premier energy resource.

 Oil currently supplies more than 40% of our total

energy demands and more than 99% of the fuel are
used in transportation.

 Saudi Arabia is the biggest crude oil producing

country in the world.

 Crude oil reserves: top 5 countries in order:

Venezuela, Saudi Arabia, Canada, Iran, Iraq
 Petroleum Fractions

 Oil is refined and separated into a large number of

commodity products, from gasoline and kerosene to
asphalt and chemical reagents used to make
plastics and pharmaceuticals.
 Cont’d

 84% by volume of the hydrocarbons present in petroleum is

converted into energy-rich fuels, including gasoline, diesel, jet
fuel, heating, and other fuel oil and liquefied petroleum
gases.

 The remaining oil is converted to pharmaceuticals, solvents,

fertilizers, pesticides, and plastics.

 Therefore, petroleum is vital to many industries, and thus is a

critical concern to many nations.
 Cont’d

 Some common fractions from petroleum

refining are:
 Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
 Gasoline
 Petroleum diesel
 Kerosene
 Jet fuel
 Fuel oil
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG):

 is a flammable mixture of propane (C3H8) (about 38% by

volume and more in winter) and butane (C4H10) (about 60% by
volume
and more in summer)
 used as a fuel in heating appliances and vehicles.

 Energy content of liquefied petroleum gas per kilogram is higher

than for gasoline because of higher hydrogen to carbon ratio.

 emits 81% of the CO2 per kWh produced by oil and 70% of that
of coal.
 Cont’d

 Liquefied petroleum gas has a typical specific heat of 46.1 MJ/kg

compared with 43.5 MJ/ kg for gasoline.

 However, its energy density of 26 MJ/l is lower than either that

of gasoline.

 Pure n-butane is liquefied at around 220 kPa (2.2 bar), while pure
propane (C3H8) at 2200 kPa (22 bar). At liquid state, the vapor
pressure of liquefied petroleum gas is about 550 kPa (5.5 bar).
Gasoline:

 primarily used as a fuel in internal combustion engines.

 typically it consists of hydrocarbons with between 4 and 12

carbon atoms per molecule.

 consists mostly of aliphatic hydrocarbons obtained by the

fractional distillation of petroleum, enhanced with iso-octane or
the aromatic hydrocarbons toluene and benzene to increase its
octane rating.
 Cont’d

 The specific density of gasoline ranges from 0.71 to 0.77 (6.175

lb/US gal) higher densities having a greater volume of aromatics.
Gasoline contains about 132 MJ/US gal (higher heating value),
while its mixture differ by up to 4% more or less than the
average.

 The emission of CO2 from gasoline is around 73.38 g/MJ.

Petroleum diesel:

 contains 8–21 carbon atoms per molecule with a

boiling point in the range of 180–360 C (360–680
F).

 Its density is about 6.943 lb/gal.

 About 86.1% of the fuel mass is carbon and it

offers a net heating value of around 43.1 MJ/kg.
Cont’d

 However, due to the higher density, diesel offers a

higher volumetric energy density at 128,700
Btu/gal versus 115,500 Btu/gal for gasoline, some
11% higher.

 The CO2 emissions from diesel are 73.25 g/MJ, (similar to

gasoline).

 Because of quality regulations, additional refining is required to

remove sulfur which may contribute to a higher cost.
Kerosene:

 thin, clear liquid formed containing between 6 and 16

carbon atoms per molecule, with density of 0.78–0.81
g/cm3.
 The flash point of kerosene is between 37 and 65 C (100
and 150 F) and its autoignition temperature is
220 C (428 F).
 The heat of combustion of kerosene is similar to that of
diesel.
 its lower heating value is around 18,500 Btu/lb, (43.1
MJ/kg), and its higher heating value is 46.2 MJ/kg
(19,861 Btu/lb).
 Jet fuel:

 type of aviation fuel designed for use in aircraft powered

by gas turbine engines.
 commonly used fuels are Jet A and Jet A-1 which are
produced to a standardized international specification.
 Jet B is used for its enhanced cold-weather
performance. Jet fuel is a mixture of a large number of
different hydrocarbons with density of 0.775-0.840 kg/l
at 15 C (59 F).
 The range is restricted by the requirements for the
product, for example, the freezing point or smoke point.
Kerosene-type jet fuel (including Jet A and Jet A-1) has
a carbon number between about 8 and 16; wide-cut or
naphtha-type jet fuel (including Jet B), between about 5
and 15.
Fuel oil:

 made of long hydrocarbon chains, particularly

alkanes, cycloalkanes, and aromatics and heavier
than gasoline and naphtha.

 classified into six classes, numbered 1 through 6,

according to its boiling point, composition, and
purpose.

 The boiling point, ranging from 175 to 600 C, and

carbon chain length, 9–70 atoms.
Cont’d

 Viscosity also increases with number, and the

heaviest oil has to be heated to get it to flow. Price
usually decreases as the fuel number increases.

 Number 1 is similar to kerosene, number 2 is the

diesel fuel that trucks and some cars run on,
leading to the name ‘‘road diesel’’. Number 4 fuel
oil is usually a blend of heavy distillate and residual
fuel oils. Number 5 and 6 fuel oils are called
residual fuel oils or heavy fuel oils
Cont’d

 Table 2.5 shows the heating values of various fuel oils per gallon.
 Natural Gas

 Another fossil fuel making significant contribution to the world

energy economy.
 cleanest of all, and is plentiful and flexible.
 naturally occurring mixture, consisting mainly of methane.
 Cont’d

 Natural gas provides 23% of all energy consumed in the

world.
 The International Energy Agency predicts that the demand
for natural gas will grow by more than 67% through 2030.
 Natural gas is becoming increasingly popular as an
alternative transportation fuel.
 Typical theoretical flame temperature of natural gas is 1960
C (3562 F), ignition point is 593 oC.
 Natural gas is a major source of electricity production
through the use of gas turbines and steam turbines.
 It burns more cleanly and produces about 30% less
carbon dioxide than burning petroleum and about 45%
less than burning coal for an equivalent amount of heat
produced.
 Nuclear Energy

 has a relatively short history: the first nuclear reactor was commissioned in
1954.
 Uranium is the main source of fuel for nuclear reactors.
 Nuclear energy plants produce electricity through the fission of nuclear
fuel, such as uranium, so they do not pollute the air with harmful gases.
 Nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction in which the nucleus of an atom splits
into smaller parts, often producing free neutrons and photons in the form of
gamma rays and releasing large amounts of energy.
 Nuclear fuels undergo fission when struck by free neutrons and generate
neutrons leading to a self-sustaining chain reaction that releases energy at a
controlled rate in a nuclear reactor.
 This heat is used to produce steam to be used in a turbine to produce
electricity. This is similar to most coal, oil, and gas fired power plants.
 Cont’d

 Typical fission release about two hundred million eV (200 MeV) of energy,
For example, complete fission energy of uranium-235 isotope is 6.73 9 1010
kJ/kg.
 The energy of nuclear fission is released as kinetic energy of the fission
products and fragments, and as electromagnetic radiation in the form of
gamma rays in a nuclear reactor.
 The energy is converted to heat as the particles and gamma rays collide
with the atoms that make up the reactor and its working fluid, usually water
or occasionally heavy water.
 The products of nuclear fission, however, are far more radioactive than the
heavy elements which are normally fissioned as fuel, and remain so for a
significant amount of time, giving rise to a nuclear waste problem.
 More than 400 nuclear power plants operating in 25 countries supply
almost 17% of the world’s electricity.
 Cont’d

 Nuclear power is essentially carbon-free.

 However, the electricity from new nuclear power plants would be

relatively expensive, and nuclear energy faces a number of
significant obstacles.

 The biggest challenges are the disposal of radioactive waste and the
threat of nuclear proliferation.

 New plants would also require long licensing times, and it would
likely be at least a decade before nuclear energy could be brought to
bear on the climate change problem.
 RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

 Renewable energy comes from natural resources and

are naturally replenished.
 Major renewable energy sources are:
 Hydroelectric
 Solar energy
 Biomass
 Wind
 Geothermal heat
 ocean
 Cont’d

 In its various forms, renewable energy comes directly from

the sun, or from heat generated deep within the earth.

 In 2008, about 19% of global final energy consumption

came from renewables, with 13% coming from traditional
biomass, which is mainly used for heating, and 3.2% from
hydroelectricity.

 Other renewables, such as small hydro, biomass, wind,

solar, geothermal, and biofuels contributed around 2.7%
and are growing rapidly.
 Cont’d

 The share of renewables in electricity generation is around 18%, with

15% of global electricity coming from hydroelectricity and 3% from
new renewables.

 Climate change concerns, high oil prices, and government support

are leading to increase in renewable energy usage and
commercialization.

 Consequently, between 2004 and 2009, worldwide renewable energy

capacity grew at rates of 10–60% annually creating businesses and
employment.

 Renewable energy replaces conventional fuels in four distinct areas:

power generation, hot water/space heating, transport fuels, and rural
(off-grid) energy services.
Renewable power generation

 provides 18% of total electricity generation

worldwide.

 Renewable power generators are spread across

many countries, and wind power alone already
provides a significant share of electricity in
some areas.
 cont’d

 Solar hot water  Renewable biofuels

 contributes a portion of  have contributed to a
the water heating decline in oil consumption in
Brazil, the United States
needs of over 70 million and many other countries.
households in many
countries.  The 93 billion liters of
biofuels produced worldwide
in 2009 displaced the
equivalent of an estimated
68 billion liters of gasoline,
equal to about 5% of world
gasoline production.
Cont’d

 New and emerging renewable energy technologies are

still under development and include cellulosic ethanol,
hot-dry-rock geothermal power, and ocean energy
 Renewable energy generally gets cheaper in the long
term, while fossil fuels generally get more expensive.
 Fossil fuel technologies are more mature, while
renewable energy technologies are being rapidly
improved to increase the efficiency of renewable
energy and reduce its cost.
 In rural and remote areas, transmission and
distribution of energy generated from fossil fuels can
be difficult and expensive; therefore producing
renewable energy locally can offer a viable alternative.
 Hydro energy

 is derived from the force or energy of moving water.

 Most hydro-electric energy comes from the potential
energy of dammed water driving a water turbine and
generator.
 The power extracted from the water depends on the
volume and on the difference in height between the
source and the water’s outflow.
 This height difference is called the head.
 The amount of potential energy in water is
proportional to the head.
 Cont’d

 To deliver water to a turbine while maintaining pressure arising from the

head, a large pipe called a penstock may be used.

 In 1878, the world’s first house to be powered with hydroelectricity was in

Northumberland, England.

 The old Schoelkopf Power Station near Niagara Falls in the US began to
produce electricity in 1881.

 One of the major advantages of hydroelectricity is the elimination of fuel.

Because there is no fuel combustion, there is little air pollution in
comparison with fossil fuel plants and limited thermal pollution compared
with nuclear plants.
 cont’d

 Hydroelectric plants also tend to have longer economic lives than

fuel-fired power generation, with some plants now in service which
were built 50–100 years ago. Operating labor cost is also usually
low, as plants are automated and need few personnel on site during
normal operation. The sale of electricity from the station may cover
the construction costs after 5–8 years of full operation.

 Hydroelectric usually refers to large-scale hydroelectric dams. Micro

hydro systems typically produce up to 100 kW of power.

 Hydro systems without dam derive kinetic energy from rivers and
oceans. Ocean energy includes marine current power, ocean thermal
energy conversion, and tidal power.
 Cont’d

 Hydro power contributes approximately 15% of the global

electricity production.

 The top 5 largest markets for hydro power in terms of capacity are
Brazil, Canada, China, Russia and the United States of America.
China significantly exceeds the others, representing 24% of global
installed capacity. In several other countries, hydro power accounts
for over 50% of all electricity generation, including Iceland, Nepal
and Mozambique for example. During 2012, an estimated 27–
30GW of new hydro power and 2–3GW of pumped storage capacity
was commissioned.
 Hydroenergy

 Hydro Power: top 5 countries

 Country Installed Capacity (MW)
China 231 000
Brazil 82 458
United States of America 77 500
Canada 75 104
Russian Federation 49 700
 SOLAR ENERGY

 most abundant energy resource and it is available for

use in its direct (solar radiation) and indirect (wind,
biomass, hydro, ocean etc.) forms.
 About 60% of the total energy emitted by the sun
reaches the Earth’s surface.
 Even if only 0.1% of this energy could be converted at
an efficiency of 10%, it would be four times larger
than the total world’s electricity generating capacity of
about 5 000GW.
 Solar powered electrical generation relies on
photovoltaics and heat engines (solar thermal).
Solar Electric Generating Systems
(Solar Thermal):

 Solar electric generating system use parabolic trough

collectors to collect the sun’s energy to generate
steam to drive a conventional steam turbine.
 The parabolic mirrors automatically track the sun
throughout the day. The sun light is directed to central
tube carrying synthetic oil, which heats around 400C.
 The heat is used to convert water to steam to drive a
steam turbine and produce electricity.
 The largest solar thermal power station is in the
Mojave Desert in the US with a power output of 354
MW.
 Photovoltaic:

 Solar photovoltaic (PV) convert light into electricity using

semiconductor materials.

 Photovoltaic cell is a solar cell, which is a solid state electrical device

that converts the energy of light directly into electricity.

 Assemblies of cells are known as solar modules or solar panels.

 Solar modules are typically deployed as an array of individual

modules on rooftops, building facades, or in large-scale ground-based
arrays.

 A module consists of many jointly connected solar cells.

 Photovoltaic:

 Most crystalline modules usually consist of 60–72 cells.

 Photovoltaic cell and modules use various semiconductors; they have

three types (1) crystalline silicon, (2) thin-film, and (3) concentrator.

 Photovoltaic systems produce direct current, which must be

converted to alternating current via an inverter if the output from the
system is to be used in the grid.

 Annual production of photovoltaic modules in 2005 was about 1.7

giga-watts (GW) worldwide.
Photovoltaic:
 Photovoltaic:
 A major goal is to increase solar photovoltaic efficiency and decrease
costs.
 Current efficiencies for crystalline silicon cells equal to about 15–
20%.
 The total costs of photovoltaic systems are currently in the $6 to $9
per peak watt range.
 Component costs include the photovoltaic modules at about $3–$4/W
(direct current), with another $3–$5/W for the inverter, installation,
and balance of sys-tem.
 The cost of residential electricity from solar photovoltaic should be
around 10–12 cents/kWh by 2015 and 6–8 cents/kWh by 2030.
 BIOMASS AND BIOENERGY

 Biomass: a term for all organic material that stems

from plants (including algae, trees and crops).

 Biomass is produced by green plants converting

sunlight into plant material through photosynthesis
and includes all land- and water- based vegetation, as
well as all organic Wastes

 The plants convert solar energy to chemical energy.

The Therefore, biomass is a renewable energy source
based on the carbon cycle.
 Cont’d

 examples of biomass fuels include wood, crops, and algae.

 When burned, the chemical energy in biomass is released as heat

 Biomass can be converted to other biofuels, such as ethanol and

biodiesel.

 Biomass grown for biofuel includes corn, soybeans, willow switch

grass, rapeseed, sugar beet, palm oil, and sorghum.
 BIOMASS AND BIOENERGY

 Cellulosic biomass, such as corn stover, straw, timber, rice husks can
also be used for biofuel production (see Fig. 2.11).

 Anaerobic digestion of biomass produces biogas, while gasification

produces syngas, which is the mixture of hydrogen and carbon
dioxide to be converted to liquid fuels. Cellulosic ethanol can also be
created by a thermo-chemical process, which uses various
combinations of temperature, pressure, water, oxygen or air, and
catalysts to convert biomass to cellulosic ethanol. Table 2.10 shows
lower heating values, moisture, and ash content of some biomass.
 Wind Energy

 The Earth is unevenly heated by the sun and the differential heating drives
a global atmospheric convection system reaching from the earth’s surface
to the stratosphere.
 Most of the energy stored in these wind movements can be found at high
altitudes where continuous wind speeds of over 160 km/h (99 mph) occur
(see Fig. 2.14).
 Wind Energy

 Wind power is a totally renewable energy source with

no greenhouse gas emissions, but due to its
unpredictability, has problems integrating with
national grids.

 At the end of 2009, worldwide wind farm capacity was

157,900 MW, representing an increase of 31% during
the year, and wind power supplied some 1.3% of
global electricity consumption.
 Geothermal Energy

 Geothermal energy is the heat originating from the original formation of

the planet, from radioactive decay of minerals, from volcanic activity,
and from solar energy absorbed at the surface (see Fig. 2.16).
 The geothermal gradient, which is the difference in temperature between
the core of the planet and its surface, drives a continuous conduction of
thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface.
 Geothermal power is cost effective, reliable, sustainable, and environ-
mentally friendly.
 Cont’d

 The world’s largest geothermal power installation is The Geysers in

California, with a rated capacity of 750 MW.
 Hot water or steam reservoirs deep in the earth are accessed by
drilling. Geothermal reservoirs located near the earth’s surface
maintain a relatively constant temperature of 50o –60o F.
 The hot water and steam from reservoirs can be used to drive
generators and produce electricity. In other applications, the heat
produced from geothermal is used directly in heating buildings and
industrial plants. As in the case of biomass electricity, a geothermal
plant runs 24 hours per day, 7 days per week and can provide base
load power, thus competing against coal plants.
 Ocean Energy

 Systems to harvest electrical power from ocean waves have recently

been gaining momentum as a viable technology.
 The potential for this technology is considered promising.
 The world’s first commercial tidal power station was installed in
2007 in the narrows of Strangford Lough in Ireland.
 Although the generator is powerful enough to power a thousand
homes, the turbine has minimal environmental impact, as it is almost
entirely submerged, and the rotors pose no danger to wildlife as they
turn quite slowly.
 Ocean thermal energy conversion uses the temperature difference
that exists between deep and shallow waters to run a heat engine (see
Sect 7.16).
 Quiz 1 (5%)

1. Give three examples of non-renewable and renewable energy

resources.
2. Nuclear energy is pollution free. (True or False)
3. Fossil Fuels are formed from the remains of dead plants and
animals by exposure to --------- and ------- in the in the absence of
oxygen in the earth’s crust over hundreds of millions of years.
4. Out of the fossil fuels, which resource is the cleanest of all?
5. -----------------is the ultimate source of energy.
6. Give three examples of secondary energy resources.
7. Give three examples of conventional energy resources.
8. Natural gas consists mainly of --------.