What is Dynamic Response?

The dynamic response of a machine, structure, or

process is how it reacts over time to something that
is done to it.
or
A dynamic response is the response of a structure to
a dynamic load (such as an explosion, or
earthquake shaking) whereas a static response is
the response of a structure to static loads (such as
the self weight of a structure). Dynamic loads
induce accelerations and resisting forces, whereas
static loads only induce resisting forces.
Why study Dynamic Response?
The dynamic response of a system gives us an idea
of how a system will behave under a particular type
of dynamic force.

Dynamic Performance
This is a measure of how well a system responds to
a changing input. The dynamic specification can
be defined by applying one or all of three different
inputs and examining the resultant output.
The Step or Transient Response comes from the
Step Input. The Ramp Response is given by the
Ramp input and the Frequency Response is
produced by the Sine Wave Input.
Transducer:
Definition: The device which converts the one
form of energy into another is known as
the transducer. The process of conversion is known
as transduction. The conversion is done
by sensing and transducing the physical
quantities like temperature, pressure, sound, etc.

The electrical transducer converts

the mechanical energy into an electric signal.
The electrical signal may be voltage, current and
frequency. The production of the signal depends on
the resistive inductive and capacitive effects of the
physical input.
Transducers are often employed at the boundaries
of automation, measurement, and control systems,
where electrical signals are converted to and from
other physical quantities (energy, force, torque,
light, motion, position, etc.). The process of
converting one form of energy to another is known
as transduction.
Needs of Transducer:
It is quite difficult to determine the exact
magnitude of the physical forces like temperature,
pressure, etc. But if the physical force is converted
into an electrical signal, then their value is easily
measured with the help of the meter.

The transducers convert the physical forces into an

electrical signal which can easily be handled and
transmitted for measurement.
The transducer receives the measurand and gives
a proportional amount of output signal. The output
signal is sent to the conditioning device where the
signal is attenuated, filtered, and modulated.
The input quantity is the non-electrical quantity, and
the output electrical signal is in the form of the
current, voltage or frequency.
The following are the advantages of
converting the physical quantity into an
electrical signal.
1.The attenuation and amplification of the electrical
signals are very easy.
2.The electrical signal produces less friction error.
3.The small power is required for controlling the
electrical systems.
4.The electrical signals are easily transmitted and
processed for measurement.
5.The component used for measuring the electrical
signal is very compact and accurate.
6.The electrical signals are used in telemetry.
Parts of Transducer
The transducer consists two important parts.
1.Sensing Element.
2.Transduction Element.

The transducer has many other parts like amplifiers,

signal processing equipment, power supplies
calibrating and reference sources, etc.
1.Sensing or Detector Element – It is the
part of the transducers which give the response
to the physical sensation. The response of the
sensing element depends on the physical
phenomenon.
2.Transduction Element – The transduction
element converts the output of the sensing
element into an electrical signal. This element is
also called the secondary transducer.
Factors Influencing the Choice of
Transducer:
The choice of the transducers used for measuring
the physical quantity depends on the following
factors.

1. Operating Principle – The transducers

are selected by their operating principles. The
operating principle may be resistive, inductive,
capacitive, optoelectronic, piezoelectric, etc.
2. Sensitivity – The sensitivity of the
transducer is enough for inducing the detectable
output.
3. Operating Range – The transducer must
have wide operating ranges so that it does not break
during the working.
4. Accuracy – The transducers gives accuracy
after calibration. It has a small value for repeatability
which is essentials for the industrial applications.
5. Cross Sensitivity – The transducers
gives variable measured value for the different
planes because of the sensitivity. Hence, for the
accurate measurement, the cross sensitivity is
essential.
6. Errors – The errors are avoided by taking
the input output relations which is obtained by
the transfer function.
7. Loading Effect – The transducers have
high input impedance and low output impedance
for avoiding the errors.
8. Environmental Compatibility – The
transducers should be able to work in any specified
environments like in a corrosive environment. It
should be able to work under high pressure and
shocks.
9. Insensitivity to Unwanted Signals –
The transducer should be sensitive enough for
ignoring the unwanted and high sensitive signals.
10. Usage and Ruggedness – The
durability, size and weight of the transducer must
be known before selecting it.
11. Stability and Reliability – The stability
of the transducers should be high enough for the
operation. And their reliability should be good in
case of failure of the transducer.
12. Static characteristic – The transducer
should have a high linearity and resolution, but it
has low hysteresis. The transducer is always free
from the load and temperature.
Applications of Transducer:
The following are the application of the
transducers.
1. It is used for detecting the movement of
muscles which is called acceleromyograph.
2. The transducer measures the load on the
engines.
3. It is used as a sensor for knowing the engine
knock.
4. The transducers measure the pressure of the
gas and liquid by converting it into an electrical
signal.
5. It converts the temperature of the devices
into an electrical signal or mechanical work.
6. The transducer is used in the ultrasound
machine. It receives the sound waves of the patient
by emitting their sound waves and pass the signal to
the CPU.
7. The transducer is used in the speaker for
converting the electrical signal into acoustic sound.
8. It is used in the antenna for converting the
electromagnetic waves into an electrical signal.
Types of Transducer
The transducer is of many types, and they
can be classified by the following criteria.

• By transduction used.
•As a primary and secondary transducer
•As a passive and active transducer
•As analogue and digital transducer
•As the transducer and inverse transducer
1. Classification based on the Principle of
Transduction:
The transducer is classified by the transduction
medium. The transduction medium may be resistive,
inductive or capacitive depends on the conversion
process that how input transducer converts the input
signal into resistance, inductance and
capacitance respectively.
2. Primary and Secondary Transducer:
Primary Transducer – The transducer consists the
mechanical as well as the electrical devices. The
mechanical devices of the transducer change the
physical input quantities into a mechanical signal. This
mechanical device is known as the primary
transducers.
Secondary Transducer – The secondary transducer
converts the mechanical signal into an electrical
signal. The magnitude of the output signal depends on
the input mechanical signal.
Example of Primary and Secondary
Transducer:
Consider the Bourdon’s Tube shown in the figure
below. The tube act as a primary transducer. It
detects the pressure and converts it into a
displacement from its free end.

The displacement of the free ends moves the core of

the linear variable displacement transformer. The
movement of the core induces the output voltage
which is directly proportional to the displacement of
the tube free end.
Thus, the two type of transduction occurs in the
Bourdon’s tube. First, the pressure is converted into
a displacement and then it is converted into the
voltage by the help of the L.V.D.T.

The Bourdon’s Tube is the primary transducer, and

the L.V.D.T is called the secondary transducer
3. Passive and Active Transducer:

The transducer is classified as the active and passive

transducer.
Passive Transducer – The transducer which
requires the power from an external supply source is
known as the passive transducer. They are also
known as the external power transducer. The
capacitive, resistive and inductive transducers are the
example of the passive transducer.
Active Transducer – The transducer which does not
require the external power source is known as the
active transducer. Such type of transducer develops
theirs owns voltage or current, hence known as a self-
generating transducer. The output signal is obtained
from the physical input quantity.
The physical quantity like velocity, temperature,
force and the intensity of light is induced with the
help of the transducer. The piezoelectric crystal,
photo-voltaic cell, tacho generator, thermocouples,
photovoltaic cell are the examples of the active
transducers.
Examples – Consider the examples of a piezoelectric
crystal. The crystal is sandwiched between the two
metallic electrodes, and the entire sandwiched is
fastened to the base. The mass is placed on the top of
the sandwiched.
The piezo crystal has the special property because of
which when the force is applied to the crystal, they
induce the voltage.
The base provides the acceleration due to which the
voltage is generated. The mass applies on the crystals
induces an output voltage. The output voltage is
proportional to the acceleration.
The above mention transducer is known as the
accelerometer which converts the acceleration into an
electric voltage. This transducer does not require any
auxiliary power source for the conversion of physical
quantity into an electrical signal
4. Analog and Digital Transducer
The transducer can also be classified by their output
signals. The output signal of the transducer may be
continuous or discrete.
Analog Transducer – The Analog transducer changes
the input quantity into a continuous function. The
strain gauge, L.V.D.T, thermocouple, thermistor are
the examples of the analogue transducer.
Digital Transducer – These transducers convert
an input quantity into a digital signal or in the form
of the pulse. The digital signals work on high or low
power.
5. Transducer and Inverse Transducer
Transducer – The device which converts the non-
electrical quantity into an electric quantity is
known as the transducer.
Inverse Transducer – The transducer which
converts the electric quantity into a physical
quantity, such type of transducers is known as the
inverse transducer. The transducer has high
electrical input and low non-electrical output.
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
The term LVDT or Linear Variable Differential
Transformer is a robust, complete linear arrangement
transducer and naturally frictionless.
They have an endless life cycle when it is used
properly. Because AC controlled LVDT does not
include any kind of electronics, they intended to work
at very low temperatures otherwise up to 650 °C (1200
°F) in insensitive environments.
The applications of LVDTs mainly include automation,
power turbines, aircraft, hydraulics, nuclear reactors,
satellites, and many more. These types of transducers
contain low physical phenomena and outstanding
repetition.
The LVDT alters a linear dislocation from a mechanical
position into a relative electrical signal including phase and
amplitude of the information of direction and distance.
The operation of LVDT does not need an electrical bond
between the touching parts and coil, but as an alternative
depends on the electromagnetic coupling.
What is an LVDT (Linear Variable Differential
Transformer)?

The LVDT full form is “Linear Variable Differential

Transformer” is LVDT. Generally, LVDT is a normal
type of transducer.
The main function of this is to convert the
rectangular movement of an object to the equivalent
electrical signal. LVDT is used to calculate
displacement and works on the transformer
principle.
The above LVDT sensor diagram comprises a core as well as a
coil assembly. Here, the core is protected by the thing whose
location is being calculated, while the coil assembly is
increased to a stationary structure.

The coil assembly includes three wire wound coils on the

hollow shape. The inside coil is the major, which is energized
by an AC source.

The magnetic flux generated by the main is attached to the two

minor coils, making an AC voltage in every coil.
The main benefit of this transducer when we compared
with other LVDT types is toughness. As there is no
material contact across the sensing component.
Because the machine depends on the combination of magnetic
flux, this transducer can have an unlimited resolution.

So the minimum fraction of progress can be noticed by an

appropriate signal conditioning tool, and the transducer’s
resolution is exclusively determined by the declaration of the
DAS (data acquisition system).
LVDT Construction
LVDT comprises of a cylindrical former, which is bounded by
one main winding in the hub of the former and the two
minor LVDT windings are wound on the surfaces.

The amount of twists in both the minor windings is

equivalent, but they are reverse to each other like clockwise
direction and anti-clockwise direction.
For this reason, the o/p voltages will be the variation in
voltages among the two minor coils. These two coils are
denoted with S1 & S2.

Esteem iron core is located in the middle of the cylindrical

former. The excitation voltage of AC is 5-12V and the
operating frequency is given by 50 to 400 HZ.
Fig. : LVDT Constraction
Working Principle of LVDT
The working principle of the linear variable differential
transformer or LVDT working theory is mutual induction. The
dislocation is a nonelectrical energy that is changed into an
electrical energy. And, how the energy is altered is discussed
in detail in the working of an LVDT.

LVDT Working Principle

 Working of an LVDT
The working of LVDT circuit diagram can be divided into
three cases based on the position of the iron core in the
insulated former.
•In Case-1: When the core of the LVDT is at the null location,
then both the minor windings flux will equal, so the induced
e.m.f is similar in the windings.

So for no dislocation, the output value (eout) is zero because

both the e1 & e2 are equivalent. Thus, it illustrates that no
dislocation took place.
• In Case-2: When the core of the LVDT is shifted to up to the
null point. In this case, the flux involving with minor winding S1
is additional as contrasted to flux connecting with the S 2
winding.
Due to this reason, e1 will be added as that of e2. Due to this Eout
(output voltage) is positive.

• In Case-3: When the core of the LVDT is shifted down to the

null point, In this case, the amount of e2 will be added as that
of e1.
Due to this eout output voltage will be negative plus it
illustrates the o/p to down on the location point.
Advantages and Disadvantages of LVDT

The LVDT advantages and disadvantages include the following.

•The measurement of the displacement range of LVDT is very high, and it ranges
from 1.25 mm -250 mm.
•The LVDT output is very high, and it doesn’t require any extension. It owns a high
compassion which is normally about 40V/mm.
•When the core travels within a hollow former consequently there is no failure of
displacement input while frictional loss so it makes an LVDT as a very precise
device.
•LVDT demonstrates a small hysteresis and thus repetition is exceptional in all
situations
•The power consumption of the LVDT is very low which is about 1W as evaluated by
another type of transducers.
•LVDT changes the linear dislocation into an electrical voltage which is simple to
progress.
•LVDT is responsive to move away from magnetic fields, thus it constantly needs a
system to keep them from drift magnetic fields.
•It is accomplished that LVDTs are more beneficial as contrasted than any kind of
inductive transducer.
•LVDT gets damaged by temperature as well as vibrations.
LVDT Applications
The applications of the LVDT transducer mainly include where
dislocations to be calculated that are ranging from a division
of mm to only some cms.
•The LVDT sensor works as the main transducer, and that
changes dislocation to electrical signal straight.
•This transducer can also work as a secondary transducer.
•LVDT is used to measure the weight, force and also pressure
•Some of these transducers are used to calculate the pressure
and load
•LVDT’s are mostly used in industries as well as
servomechanisms.
•Other applications like power turbines, hydraulics,
automation, aircraft, and satellites