Welding

Welding

It is a process in which localised coalescence (permanent joint) is

produced with or without application of heat, with or without
application of pressure or pressure alone and with or without the
application of filler material to join similar or dissimilar materials.
 Welding terminology:
 Weld pool/puddle:- amount of liquid metal between two work surfaces before solidification is
known as weld pool.
 Weld bead:- amount of material which is added into the joint in a single pass welding is known
as weld bead.
 Reinforcement:- amount of material projected from the base metal.
 Penetration:- amount of material penetrated into base material.
 Root gap:- it is the minimum distance between two workpieces before joining.
 Toe:- it is the junction between workpiece and the weld face.
 Throat:- it is the junction between work pieces and weld face. It is the weakest section in a
fillet weld.
 Weld deposition rate:- it is amount of material which is added into the joint per unit time. It is
expressed in kg/hr
 Types of welding

Liquid state Solid/ Liquid state

Solid state (homogeneous) (hetrogeneous)
(autogeneous)

 Friction  Resistance
 Forged  Chemical • Gas
 Soldering
 Diffusion  Arc • Thermit
 Brazing
 cold
 Flux cored
 Pressure  Submersed arc
 Explosive  Shielded
 ultrasonic • TIG
• MIG
• PAW
Alternating current(AC)
Direct Current(DC)
Cathode(-)
Anode (+)
 Arc welding principle
 When the electrode will touch the workpiece, due to short circuit arc will be
produced. By maintaining some gap b/w electrode and workpiece arc will be
continued. This gap is known as arc length.

Power
Va= A+B la supply

electrode
Arc length
(1 to 1.5 d) workpiece
d= dia of
electrode
 When electrons are reaching from cathode to anode, high KE of electrons will be
converted into heat energy and 2/3(approx.) of heat will be produced on anode.
 By moving positive ions from anode to cathode 1/3 (approx.) of heat will be
generated on cathode . KE of positive ions will be less compared to electrons.
 Between electrode and workpiece, atmospheric air will be converted into ionised
gas column known as plasma. It is high energy region and it is conductor of
electrons/ charge.
 By changing the polarity continuously in AC arc welding, uniform heat generation
will be taken place on electrode and workpiece in a given cycle of power supply.
 In order to generate heat specifically on the electrode or workpiece, DC arc
welding technique can be used.
 DC arc welding
Parameter DC straight polarity(DCSP, DCEN) DC Reverse polarity(DCRP, DCEP)

Polarity Electrode is –ve (cathode)and workpiece is Electrode is positive and workpiece is negative.
+ve (anode)

Heat generation More heat generation on workpiece (2/3) than Less heat generation on electrode than
on electrode(1/3) workpiece

Used for It is used for welding of high thickness and Used for low thickness and low melting point
high melting point materials. materials.

Penetration Depth of penetration is more Depth of penetration is less

Weld deposition rate Weld deposition rate is less Weld deposition rate is more and welding speed
is high

Production rate Low High

 Arc Blow
 Due to deflection of electromagnetic lines towards the workpiece, electric arc will
be deflected from its intended path is known as arc blow
 Due to arc blow, heat concentration at a given point on the workpiece is not
possible and weld spatters will be produced.
Remedies
 Provide some extra material at beginning and at the end of the workpiece known
as tab in and tab out.
 Reduce the intensity of welding current.
 Provide flux coating around the electrode. They will contain ionization
compound and reduce the intensity of electromagnetic field lines around the
electrode.
 Welding techniques

 There are two movements for electrode w.r.t. workpiece

 Linear movement of electrode w.r.t. workpiece is known as welding speed.
 Downward movement of electrode w.r.t. workpiece to maintain constant arc
length.
 If the two movement of electrode are controlled manually, then it is called
manual arc welding technique.
 If both the movements are controlled within the help of welding machine
then it is called automatic welding technique.
 If one movement is controlled manually and other by using welding
machine then it is called semi-automatic welding technique.
 Type of welding machine

1) constant current type (dropping characteristic)

 For a small change in arc voltage, here will be small change in power
source current then it is called constant current type of welding
machine.
 These are used in manual arc welding technique.
Condition for maximum power in constant
current type (Stable arc)

Max Power
 In constant current type welding machine:
With a change in arc voltage, the change in current is small and,
therefore, with a consumable electrode welding process, electrode
melting rate would remain fairly constant with a change in arc
length. These power sources are required for processes using
relatively thicker consumable electrodes which may sometimes
get stubbed to workpiece or with non consumable tungsten
electrode where during touching of electrode for starting of arc
may lead to damage of electrode if current is unlimited.
Under these conditions the short circuiting current shall be limited
leading to safety of power source and the electrode.
 (2) constant voltage type (linear characteristic)
 For a small change in arc voltage corresponding change in the power source
(transformer, rectifier, generator) current is considerable then it is called
constant voltage type welding machine.
 It is used in automatic welding technique.
Constant voltage type(linear characteristic)

Max Power

Vp=Va
 Some power sources need high frequency unit to start the arc, which may be
requirement of processes like TIG and plasma arc. High frequency unit is
introduced in the welding circuit.
 High frequency unit is a device which supplies high voltage of the order of few
KV along with high frequency of few KHz with low current. This high voltage
ionizes the medium between electrode and workpiece/nozzle starting pilot arc
which ultimately leads to the start of main arc.
 Although high voltage may be fatal for the operator but when it is associated
with high frequencies then current does not enter body but it causes only skin
effect i.e. current passes through the skin of operator causing no damage to the
operator.
 Terms used in constant current and
constant voltage type machine
 Open circuit voltage : it is the maximum rated voltage between open terminals
under no loading conditions. It is generally 80-90 V.
 Short circuit current : it is the maximum rated current that a welding machine is
capable to supply at a rated power.
 Duty cycle: it is the percentage of time during which arc will be on without
overheating the elements in a welding machine.

Duty cycle= Arc on time/ total time(arc on time + idle time)

 Functions of flux coating
 Flux coating material will acts as oxidiser.
 It will form the slag and it will protect the liquid metal from atmospheric gases.
 It will stabilize the arc by reducing arc blow.
 It will concentrate the heat on the workpiece and weld deposition rate.
 It will increase the viscosity of the metal in the weld pool.
 It will increase the strength of the welded joint.
 Flux coating materials
1. Deoxidising materials: Graphite, alumina, cellulose, ferrosilicon and
ferromanganese.
2. Slag formation compound: iron oxide, silicon dioxide, titanium oxide and
aluminium oxide.
3. Arc stabiliser (arc blow reducer) : sodium oxide, calcium oxide, potassium silicate,
magnesium oxide.
4. Weld strengtheners: chromium, nickel, cobalt, vanadium.
5. Viscosity compound: titanium oxide(rutile coating), calcium fluoride.
 Metal inert gas welding(MIG/GMAW)
 Arc is generated between a consumable electrode and workpiece.
 Electrode is in the form of a wire and continuously feed to the workpiece by
rotating the roller.
 Movement of rollers can be controlled by using servo mechanism. It is automatic
welding technique. Constant voltage type welding machine can be used.
 Liquid metal in the weld pool can be protected by applying inert gas
atmosphere.
 For welding of all materials including aluminium, magnesium alloys, DCRP or
AC power supply with a high rate of current (300-500 ampere) can be used.
 Applications:
 This technique can be used for welding of high thickness material made up of Al
and Mg alloys, Cu and its alloys in aerospace, automobile and spacecraft
industries.
 Tungsten inert gas welding(TIG/GTAW)
 FOR welding of aluminium and magnesium alloy, this technique can be used.
 Arc is generated between a non-consumable electrode and workpiece.
 For welding of less than 5 mm thickness workpiece material without using filler rod, welding can
be performed.
 For welding of more than 5 mm thickness material, filler material is supplied externally.
 Liquid material in the weld pool is protected by creating inert gas atmosphere.
 For welding of other materials except aluminium and magnesium alloy DCSP can be used.
 For welding of Al and Mg alloys AC power supply can be used with a welding current of 150-
250 ampere. In the first half cycle due to straight polarity heat generation is maximum on the
workpiece and metal oxide is produced.
 In the next half cycle due to reverse polarity, oxide can be cleaned due to movement of electron
from workpiece to electrode. This is known as cathode cleaning.
Applications: used in welding of Al, Mg alloys in aerospace, automobile and chemical
industries.
 Submersed arc welding
 Arc is generated between consumable electrode and workpiece.
 By suppling the high rate of current, electrode gets melted by melting the base metal
liquid metal will be produced.
 By suppling large quantity of solid granular flux arc will be submersed under the flux. Due
to this heat transfer losses from the arc will be minimum, depth of penetration is
maximum, slag inclusion can be reduced and weld spatter can be minimised.
 Weld deposition rate is very high.
 Welding speed is maximum.
 It can be used for welding in flat position only.
 Heat affected zone is maximum.
 Weld distortion can be appeared.
applications: fabrication of pressure vessels and ship building, welding of high thickness
plates, pipes and bridges.
 Gas welding
 By burning the acetylene in the presence of oxygen due to exothermic reaction
heat will be produced and this will be used for melting of base material to
produce a fusion joint.
 For complete combustion of 1 mole of acetylene 2.5 moles of oxygen is required
in which 1 mole is supplied from the oxygen cylinder and 1.5 moles are
consumed from the atmosphere. By changing the volume flow rate of oxygen
and acetylene different flames can be produced and they can be used for
different applications.
 Application of flames
1. Neutral flame: (Oxygen to acetylene ratio-- 1) it is general purpose flame for
welding of mild steel, low carbon steel, aluminium, cast iron etc.
2. Oxidising flame: (Oxygen to acetylene ratio-- 1.15 to 1.5) welding of copper,
zinc and brass.
3. Carburizing flame (reducing flame) : (Oxygen to acetylene ratio-- .85 to .95)
used for welding of high carbon steel and cast iron.
 Gas welding techniques
1) Forehand (leftward)
in this technique, flame is moving from left to right. During this process inner core is
heating the base material at a given point and outer blue flame is preheating the base
material before welding. Due to this difference of temperature between weld and
unwelded portion can be reduced.
Due to this heat transfer rate will be controlled in the weld pool and the possibility of
stresses in the welded joint will be reduced and crack formation can be minimised.
It is difficult to weld iron material by using other welding techniques. This is due to the
free form of the carbon in cast iron will be converted into the carbides if the difference
of temperature between the weld and unwelded portion is very high . To overcome this
, gas welding technique with preheating can be used.
By preheating the cast iron material temperature difference can be reduced which
results in the reduction of carbide formation.
Leftward welding technique
2) backhand welding technique(rightward):
 in this technique, welding torch is moving from left to right.
 During this process, outer blue flame reheating the already welded
portion(annealing) .
 Due to this stresses developed in the weld joint can be released.
Rightward welding technique
Gas cutting

 Same setup used for gas welding can be gas cutting except in the form of welding nozzle
tip.
 In the gas cutting through the circumferential holes, initially neutral flame is coming and it
will be used for preheating the material up to kindling temperature. It is the minimum
temperature at which a material is ready to oxidised
 After this supplying the high pressure oxidising flame on to the workpiece 60-70 %
material get evaporated and remaining material will be blown off in the form of fine liquid
droplets.
 Gas cutting is an evaporation process.
 Thermit welding
 For welding of high thickness plates, this welding can be used.
 Thermit mixture will be heated in the crucible up to 1200 ˚C using magnesium rod.
 At this, thermit reaction will take place and 3MJ/ mole of energy will be produced.
 Due to this heat, iron will be converted in the molten state and it will enter into the gap
between two workpieces.
 By melting base material, molten weld pool will be formed. Aluminium oxide will be
acting as a slag to protect the liquid metal
Applications:
Repair work of railway rails, joining the large size broken castings, welding of thick plates
and ship hulls.
Thermite reaction
 Spot welding
 For welding of less thickness materials this technique can be used.
 Two workpieces will be held between two copper electrodes.
 By supplying high rate of current to the workpieces for a small fraction of time, due
to contact resistance between the two workpieces heat will be produced.
 After getting sufficient amount of heat, switch off the power supply, additional
pressure can be applied to the workpieces through copper electrodes to produce a
joint.
 By allowing the liquid metal to solidify a solid joint can be produced.
 There is a possibility of indentation on the sheet material.
 Leakproof joint can not be produced.

 Applications: lap welding of sheet metals in automobile and refrigerator bodies.

Spot welding
Force v/s Time plot in spot welding
 Seam welding
 Two workpieces which are to be welded held between two copper electrodes which are in
the form of rollers.
 By supplying high rate of current to the workpieces through the electrodes, heat will be
produced at contact of two surfaces.
 By rotating the rollers continuously pressure can be applied on the workpiece material and
due to this nugget can be produced.
 And because of continuous contact of rollers with the workpiece materials nugget get
overlapped and a seam can be produced.
 Leakproof joint can be produced.
 Welding speed is very high.
 There is a possibility of indentation on the workpiece at the contact with the electrode.
Applications: fabrication of fuel tank, gasoline tanks, and sheet metal vessels, hollow
cylindrical fuel tanks.
Seam welding