THE

PERPETUATION OF
LIFE
PERPETUATION COMES FORM THE WORD
“PERPETUATE” WHICH MEANS FOR SOMETHING TO
CONTINUE
 Plant Reproduction: Asexual Reproduction

• No fusion of sex cells or gametes

• Only a single parent is involved
• Produced from the vegetative unit
• Genetically identical to the parent
 Asexual Reproduction: Fission
• Example: yeast or bacteria
• 2, 4, or 8 daughter cells
• Binary (2) or multiple (4) daughter cells
• Each daughter cell grows into a new organism

Binary fission– a process where one cell divides to form two identical cells.
This is an example of asexual reproduction.
 Asexual Reproduction: Budding
• Bud-like growth on the side of the parent cell
• Seperates from the parent cells
• Becomes new organism
• E.G. Hydra
 Asexual Reproduction: Fragmentation
• Accidental breaking off into many fragments
• Gives rise to a new organism through cell division
• E.H. Spirogyra
 Asexual Reproduction: Spore Formation
• Occurs in lower plants
• E.G. pteridophytes and byrophytes
• Special reproductive units develop asexually on the parent’s body (spore)
• Develop into new plants
 Vegetative Reproduction
• Formation of new plants form a somatic (vegetative) cell
• Only requires mitotic division
• No gametic fusion occurs
• Daughter plants are exact copies of their parents
 Sexual Reproduction
• Fusion of male and female gametes
• Haploid gametes
• Contain half the genetic material
• Fertilization results in the formation of a diploid zygote
• Offspring are not genetically similar to their parents
 Reproduction in Lower Plants:
Chlamydomonas
• Unicellular algae
• Haploid
• Flagella
• Large chloroplast is present
• May undergo sexual (loses flagella) or asexual (zoospores) reproduction
 Reproduction in Lower Plants: Spirogyra
• Free-floating algae
• Contains a row of rectangular cells joined end to end
• Vegetative reproduction(fragmentation) or sexual reproduction (scalariform
conjugation)
 Reproduction in Angiosperms (Flowering
Plants)
• Flower: basic reproductive unit
• Annuals: live for one year
• Biennials: live for two seasons
• Perennials: live for several years
• Monocarpic: perennials plants that reproduce only once during their lifetime
and then die
 Initiation of Flowering
• Germination
• Young plant grows intil it has a definite shape and size
• Young or juvenile phase
• Plant completes vegetative growth
• Vegetative shoot apex transforms into a floral apex
• Flowering stage
 Factors Affecting Flowering
• Photoperiodism (light)
• Vernalisation(temperature)
• Gibberrellin
• Auxin
• Ethylene
 Anatomy of a Flower
• For whorls on a stalk (thalamus)
• Sepals comprise the calyx
• Petals comprise the corolla
• Outer whorls = androecium (male) or gynoecium (female)
 Stamen, Microsporagia and Pollen Grain
• Stamen: contains anther with microsporagia
• Microsporagia: four pollen sacs supported by filament
• Sporangium has prominent nucleus and cytoplasm
• Also known as microspore mother cells
• Microsporangium has epiderms and tapetum
• Undergoes meiosis
• Has four haploid microspores
 The Development of the Male Gametophyte

• Outer wall of microspore has two layers: exine and intine

• Exine: made of sporopollenin and has germ pores
• Intine: Cellulosic wall
• Pollen tube grows out through germ pores
• Pollen grain not male gamete but produces the male gamete
 The Development of the Female Gamete
• Ovule is covered by integuments
• Ovule is attached to the ovary via a furniculus
• Basal part is known as chalaza
• Pistil (gynoecium) is the reproductive part
• Megasporagia are future seeds
• Ovule consists of integuments and nuclei; attached to placenta on the other
end
 The Development of Female Gamete
• A single hypodermal cell becomes larger
• Becomes the megaspore mother cell
• Undergoes meiotic cell division
• Gives rise to four haploid megaspore cells
• Three degenerate, one remains functional
• 8 nuclei form = embryo sac
• Migrate and form three groups
• Two at center of the sac = central cell
 Vegetative Reproduction in Angiosperms
• Natural Method: underground modification of stems (ginger, potation
,onion, corn)
• Artificial Method: cutting, layering, aerial layering
ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
 GENES
• A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity
• Composed of : DNA – Deoxyribonucleic acid (Hereditary Material)
• Is packed into something we called:
- CHROMOSOME