Skin and Temperature Control


 The skin is a continuous layer of tissue covering the surface of the body. It has three principle functions:
1.
1. It protects the tissues beneath from mechanical injury, from the injurious effects of ultraviolet radiation in direct sunlight
2.
2. It contains numerous sense organs which are sensitive to temperature, touch, pressure and pain and so make the organism
aware of changes in its surroundings
3.
3. It helps to keep the body temperature constant.


 The skin consists of two main layers, an outer epidermis and an inner dermis.
 EPIDERMIS: the epidermis is made up of three layers:
1.
1. Malpighian : is the innermost layer of the epidermis. It is a continuous layer of cells which divide actively and so are
constantly renewing the epidermis from beneath. The cells may contain granules of dark-brown pigment, melanin, the
concentration of which determines the color of the skin. Melanin is opaque to ultraviolet light and protects the tissues
beneath it against injury from this radiation.
2.
2. Granular: layer is contains some living cells, but toward the surface it gives way gradually to the cornified layer.
3.
3. Cornified : layer contains dead cells only. They become impregnated with keratin, a fibrous protein and form a tough outer
coat which resists mechanical damage and bacterial invasion and reduces the loss of water by evaporation.

 DERMIS

 the dermis is a layer of connective tissue containing many elastic fibres. It is thicker than the epidermis and contains blood
capillaries, nerve endings and sensory organs, lymphatic vessels, sweat glands and hair follicles.

 The capillaries in the skin supply its cells and those of its associated structures, with the necessary food and oxygen and
remove their excretory products .
SKIN :
the skin of an adult person contains between two and three million sweat glands. The gland is supplied with blood by a
network of capillaries, the cell absorb fluid from the capillaries and the tissues surrounding them, and pass it into the
duct of the gland and hence to the exterior. The fluid consists mainly of water, with salts, principally sodium chloride,
and small quantities of urea and lactic acid dissolved in it. Small amounts of water are constantly lost by evaporation
through the skin at normal temperatures. If the body temperature rises by 0.2 to 0.5 degree C the glands begin to
secrete sweat on to the surface of the skin, where it rapidly evaporates. In hot climate a man doing manual work may
lose about 1 kg of sweat in an hour. Since about 0.5 per cent of sweat consists of minerals slats, especially sodium
chloride, this represents a considerable loss of salts from the body. If water alone is taken to replace that lost in sweat,
the salt and water balance of the blood and tissues is upset, leading to the symptoms of “heat cramp.”

HAIR FOLLICLE:
the hair follicle is a deep pit in the dermis, lined with cells of the granular and Malphigian layers, which multiply and
build up a hair inside the follicle. Growth continuous for about four years ; the hair then falls out and a new period of
growth begins. Where hairs grow thickly they form a covering which protects the skin from injury, and which also has
an insulting function. The whiskers growing on the sides of the face in mammals such as cats and mice have a sensory
role. The sebaceous glands open into the hair follicles and produce an oily secretion which gives the hairs water
repelling properties, keeps the epidermis supple, and reduces the tendency for it to become too dry as a result of
evaporation. It also has antiseptic properties against certain bacteria. Subcutaneous fat are in the layers of adipose
tissue beneath the dermis. The fat may also act as a heat-insulting layer.
TEMPERATURE CONTROL is a process in which change of temperature of a space (and objects collectively therewithin) is
measured or otherwise detected, and the passage of heat energy into or out of the space is adjusted to achieve a desired average
temperature.

CONTROL LOOPS
A home thermostat is an example of a closed control loop: It constantly assesses the current room temperature and controls a heater
and/or air conditioner to increase or decrease the temperature according to user-defined setting(s). A simple (low-cost, cheap)
thermostat merely switches the heater or air conditioner either on or off, and temporary overshoot and undershoot of the desired average
temperature must be expected. A more expensive thermostat varies the amount of heat or cooling provided by the heater or cooler,
depending on the difference between the required temperature (the "set point") and the actual temperature. This minimizes
over/undershoot. The process is called PID and is implemented using a PID Controller.

ENERGY BALANCE
An
An object's
object's or
or space's
space's temperature
temperature increases
increases when
when heat
heat energy
energy moves
moves into
into it,
it, increasing
increasing the
the average
average kinetic
kinetic energy
energy of
of its
its atoms,
atoms, e.g.,
e.g., of
of
things
things and
and air
air in
in a
a room.
room. Heat
Heat energy
energy leaving
leaving an
an object
object or
or space
space lowers
lowers its
its temperature.
temperature. Heat
Heat flows
flows from
from one
one place
place to
to another
another (always
(always
from
from a a higher
higher temperature
temperature toto a
a lower
lower one)
one) by
by one
one or
or more
more ofof three
three processes:
processes: conduction,
conduction, convection
convection andand radiation.
radiation. In
In conduction,
conduction,
energy
energy is passed from one atom to another by direct contact. In convection, heat energy moves by conduction into some movable
is passed from one atom to another by direct contact. In convection, heat energy moves by conduction into some movable fluid
fluid
(such
(such as air or water) and the fluid moves from one place to another, carrying the heat with it. At some point the heat energy in
as air or water) and the fluid moves from one place to another, carrying the heat with it. At some point the heat energy in the
the fluid
fluid
is
is usually
usually transferred
transferred toto some
some other
other object
object by
by means
means conduction
conduction again.
again. The
The movement
movement of of the
the fluid
fluid can
can be
be driven
driven by
by negative-buoyancy,
negative-buoyancy, as as
when
when cooler
cooler (and
(and therefore
therefore denser)
denser) air
air drops
drops and
and thus
thus upwardly
upwardly displaces
displaces warmer
warmer (less-dense)
(less-dense) air
air (natural
(natural convection),
convection), oror by
by fans
fans or
or
pumps (forced convection). In radiation, the heated atoms make electromagnetic emissions absorbed by remote other atoms, whether
nearby or at astronomical distance. For example, the Sun radiates heat as both invisible and visible electromagnetic energy. What we
know as "light" is but a narrow region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
If, in a place or thing, more energy is received than is lost, its temperature increases. If the amount of energy coming in and going out are
exactly the same, the temperature stays constant—there is thermal balance, or thermal equilibrium..

Poikilothermic : fish, amphibian, reptiles and all the invertebrates are Poikilothermic, that is , their body temperature is the same as, or
only a few degrees above, that of their surrounding. This makes their activities very independent on temperature con when their
surrounding are warm their bodies are warm too and are normally active, but in cold conditions their body temperature is low, all the
chemical changes in their protoplasm are slowed down, and the organism may be reduced to a state of complete inactivity . Insects can be
entirely