* NATURAL HAZARDS,

MITIGATION, AND
ADAPTATION
What are the different
hazards that may happen in
the event of :
1. Earthquakes,
2. Volcanic Eruptions and
3. Landslide?
An earthquake is caused by the
sudden release of slowly
accumulating strain energy along
a fault within the earth's crust.
Areas of surface or underground
fracturing that can experience
earthquakes are known as
earthquake fault zones.
A. Ground shaking-ground shaking or ground motion, a principal cause of
the partial or total collapse of structures, is the vibration of the ground caused
by seismic waves during an earthquake.
B. Surface faulting-the offset or tearing of the ground surface by differential
movement along a fault during an earthquake
C. Landslides and liquefaction
1. Rock avalanches-originate on over-steepened slopes in weak
rocks

2. Rapid soil flows-

3. Rock falls-occur most commonly in closely jointed or weakly

cemented materials on slopes steeper than 40 degrees

D. Tsunamis-Tsunamis are water waves or seismic sea waves caused by large-

scale sudden movement of the sea floor, due usually to earthquakes and on rare
occasions to landslides, volcanic eruptions, or man-made explosions.

*Earthquake
-"Seismic gaps" along major plate boundaries
have been identified: areas with histories of prior
large earthquakes (greater than 7 on the Richter
scale-Ms7) and great earthquakes (Ms7.75)
which have not had such an event for more than
30 years (McCann et al, 1979; Nishenko, 1985;
and United Nations, 1978).
-Recent studies show that major earthquakes do
not recur in the same place along faults until
sufficient time has elapsed for stress to build up,
usually a matter of several decades.
-In the main seismic regions, these "quiet" zones
present the greatest danger of future
earthquakes.
-Confirming the seismic gap theory,
several gaps that had been identified near
the coasts of Alaska, Mexico, and South
America experienced large earthquakes
during the past decade.
-Moreover, the behavior of some faults
appears to be surprisingly constant: there
are areas where earthquakes occur at the
same place, but decades apart, and have
nearly identical characteristics.
---Monitoring these seismic gaps,
therefore, is an important component of
*Relating general ground shaking potential to allowable
density of building occupancy.-
*-Relating building design and construction standards to
the degree of ground shaking risk.
*- Adopting ordinances that require geologic and
seismic site investigations before development
proposals can be approved.
*- In areas already developed, adopting a hazardous
building abatement ordinance and an ordinance to
require removal of dangerous parapets.

*Earthquake mitigation: Ground

* Restricting permissible uses to those compatible with
the hazard, i.e., open space and recreation areas,
freeways, parking lots, cemeteries, solid-waste
disposal sites, etc.
*- Establishing an easement that requires a setback
distance from active fault traces.
*- Prohibiting all uses except utility or transportation
facilities in areas of extremely high hazard, and setting
tight design and construction standards for utility systems
traversing active fault zones.

*Earthquake mitigation:surface
faulting
*land uses can be restricted
*geologic investigations can be
required before development is
allowed
* grading and foundation design
can be regulated

*Earthquake mitigation:Ground
failure
A. Tephra falls and ballistic projectiles-includes all sizes of rock
fragments and lava blobs ejected into the atmosphere by the force of an
eruption which accumulate to form deposits as the airborne materials fall back
to earth.
-Tephra deposits consist of variable proportions of low-density material
(pumice and scoria) and high-density rock fragments with particle sizes ranging
from ash (2mm) to blocks and bombs (up to several meters in diameter). These
larger fragments, hurled with great force from the volcano, are considered
ballistic projectiles.
B. Pyroclastic phenomena-masses of hot, dry pyroclastic material and
hot gases that move rapidly along the ground surface. The term includes a
range of volcanic phenomena known as pumice flow, ash flow, block-and-ash
flow, nuee ardente. and glowing avalanches
C. Lahars (mud flows) and floods -a flowing slurry of volcanic debris and
water that originates on a volcano. Lahars in which at least 50 percent of the
particulate matter is the size of sand or smaller are called mud flows, while
those with a lower content of fine particles are called debris flows

*Volcanic eruptions
D. Lava flows and domes-Fluid lava forms long thin
flows on slopes and flat-topped lava lakes in flat areas
and topographic depressions, while viscous lava forms
short stubby flows on slopes and steep-sided domes
around their vents.
-A volcanic dome is formed when lava extruded from a
vent is too viscous to flow more than a few tens or
hundreds of meters so that movement is principally
upwards towards the center of the dome
E. Poisonous gases-Phreatic explosions occur
when magma heats groundwater to the point that it
forms steam and blasts through the overlying rock or
sediment. Volcanic gases may carry toxic elements that
can kill humans and animals and acids that can harm
vegetation and corrode metal.
* reducing the potential loss of life and property damage that can be
caused by a volcanic eruption-primarily involve hazard assessments and
land-use planning.
* establishment of monitoring and warning systems, emergency
evacuation measures, protective measures, insurance programs, and
relief and rehabilitation measures
* Volcanoes which present a short-term hazard and which clearly
threaten life or property should be kept under surveillance, and
restrictions should be placed on permanent habitation in the areas of
greatest hazard. For volcanoes that have long-term periodicity and
therefore may or may not pose a hazard during the lifetime of a
project, land-use restrictions may not be warranted on purely economic
grounds, but development should be planned with a knowledge of the
potential consequences of future eruptions. Obviously, an imminent
eruption requires constant monitoring and vigilance and the taking of
suitable measures to cope with the impending event.

*Volcanic eruptions mitigations

Tropical Cyclone-Is a rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-
pressure center, closed low-level atmospheric circulation, strong winds and spiral
arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rains or squalls.
Monsoon- seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in
precipitation, but is now used to describe seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation
and precipotation associated with the asymmetric heating of land and sea .
Floods-
Ipo-ipo-
Climate means the usual condition of the temperature, humidity, atmospheric
pressure, wind, rainfall, and other meteorological elements in an area of the Earth's
surface for a long time.
Weather-refers to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity. The state of
the atmosphere with respect to heat or cold, wetness or dryness, calm or storm,
clearness or cloudiness.
Coastal processes are unavoidable occurrences driven by nature and amplified by human action. They
cause damage to the shorelines through coastal erosion, submersion, and saltwater intrusion.

The following practices and methods can help coastal areas cope with coastal erosion, submersion, and
saltwater intrusion.
1. Coastal Protection
Some structures and methods can help protect the coasts from erosion and submersion. They are usually
constructed along the coasts.
• Seawalls and bulkheads are structures that are built parallel to shores that protect the coasts from wave
actions.
• Groynes and jetties are structures that are built perpendicular to shores to prevent coastal erosion by
promoting beach build-up as they trap sand.
• Breakwaters are offshore structures that protect coasts from parallel waves and in turn, prevent erosion
and submersion.
• Beach nourishment is a method where a large amount of sand is added to the coasts. This will create a
new beach or widen an existing one. However, this method is costly which deters communities to use it.
• Sandbags are used to counteract waves that hit the shores. They also diminish the effect of a storm surge
that can cause submersion.

2.Reducing Coastal Erosion

Aside from coastal protection, different ways can be done to reduce the impact of coastal erosion. Some of
them are less expensive than constructing structures along the coasts.
• Development of infrastructures must be constructed in safe distances from the coasts.
• Beach dewatering involves pumping out water from the shores to prevent erosion.
• Artificial seaweeds can be placed in the water near the coasts to reduce the speed of current that promote
erosion.
• Ban of mining activities near coasts prevents erosion caused by mining.
• Plant cover and vegetation around coasts aid in protecting coasts from erosion.
Coping with Saltwater Intrusion

The following methods help in dealing with saltwater intrusion.

• Monitoring and assessment ensure effective management of saltwater intrusion
cases.
• Regulations from governing units aid in coping with saltwater intrusion. Structures
must be regulated to have a safe distance from the sea to prevent excessive
groundwater extraction from the reservoir that contributes to saltwater intrusion.
• Artificial recharges pump freshwater to the reservoir to prevent saltwater from
intruding through the coasts.
• Barriers can be constructed along coasts to prevent further advancement of
saltwater if already present.