4.4.

6 Gradients in the Quasi-Fermi Levels

- At equilibrium, there is no gradient in the Fermi level EF

- In the steady state, there is a gradient in the quasi-Fermi level due to drift and diffusion


dn( x) d
dx

dx
ni e  
( Fn  Ei ) / kT

n( x)  dFn dEi 

kT  dx
 
dx 
and E ( x) =
1 dEi
q dx
dn( x)
The total electron J n ( x)  q n n( x) E ( x)  qDn
current becomes: dx
 dFn dEi 
 J n ( x)  q n n( x) E ( x)   n n( x)  
 dx dx 
dFn
 J n ( x )   n n( x ) (4-51)
dx

d (Fn / q) d (Fn / q)
J n (x)  q n n(x)   n (x) (4-52a)
dx dx
Modified Ohm’s Law d (Fp / q) d (Fp / q)
J p (x)  q p p(x)   p (x) (4-52b)
dx dx
4.4.5 The Haynes-Shockley Experiment (Please read Section 4.4.5)
- classic experiment demonstrating the drift and diffusion of minority carriers
- first performed in 1951at Bell Telephone Laboratories
- independent measurement of the minority carrier mobility and diffusion coefficient

Figure 4—18
Drift and diffusion of a hole pulse in an n-type bar:
(a) sample geometry; (b) position and shape of the
pulse for several times during its drift down the bar.
Figure 4—19
Calculation of Dp from the shape of the p distribution
after time td. No drift or recombination is included
Figure 4—20
The Haynes–Shockley experiment: (a) circuit schematic;
(b) typical trace on the oscilloscope screen.
Chapter 5 Junctions

p-n junctions
Junctions metal-semiconductor junctions
heterojunctions

Fabrication
Equilibrium conditions
Biased junctions; steady state conditions
p-n junctions Reverse bias breakdown
Transient and AC conditions
Deviations from simple theory

1. Strong qualitative understanding of the properties of p-n junctions

Goals
2. Know how to use the mathematics of p-n junctions to make
calculations
 5.1 Fabrication of p-n junctions

Major process steps (Please read Section 5.1)

Thermal Oxidation Diffusion Rapid Thermal Processing

Ion Implantation Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)

Photolithography Etching Metallization

Crystal Growth and Wafer Preparation (Chap.1)

Process Simulation

Process Integration
Figure 5—10
Simplified description of steps in the fabrication of p-n junctions.
For simplicity, only four diodes per wafer are shown, and the relative
thicknesses of the oxide, PR, and the Al layers are exaggerated.
 5.2 Equilibrium Conditions

What will happen if we bring a p-type semiconductor and a n-type semiconductor together
to form a junction?

Based on knowledge gained from previous chapters, we expect:

• Initially, current will flow due to diffusion

• No net current can flow across the junction at equilibrium

• An internal electric field E will build up as a result of

uncompensated donor ions (Nd+) and acceptor ions (Na−)

• The electric field gives rise to a Contact Potential V0

across the junction E=-dV(x)/dx

• The Fermi levels will be aligned at equilibrium

Figure 5—11
Properties of an equilibrium p-n junction: (a) isolated, neutral regions of p-type and n-
type material and energy bands for the isolated regions; (b) junction, showing space
charge in the transition region W, the resulting electric field % and contact potential
V0, and the separation of the energy bands; (c) directions of the four components of
particle flow within the transition region, and the resulting current directions.
5.2.1 The Contact Potential
A step junction—uniform p-doping on one side of a sharp junction and uniform n-doping
on the other side. (vs. graded junction)

W  transition region, or space charge region,

or depletion region

V0=Vn-Vp contact potential

qV0  built-in potential energy barrier

x direction is taken from p to n

 The derivation of V0

At equilibrium, the drift and diffusion currents must cancel for each type of carrier. For hole
current,
 dp ( x) 
J p ( x)  q   p p ( x) E ( x)  D p  0 (5-4a)
 dx 
Rearrange Eq. (5-4a) to obtain
p 1 dp(x)
E(x)  (5-4b)
Dp p(x) dx

Using Einstein relation and E(x)=-dV(x)/dx , Eq. (5-4b) becomes

 q dV (x) 1 dp(x)
  (5-5)
kT dx p(x) dx
Integration over the junction limits
V pn
q n 1

 
kT V p
dV  p p dp
p

q p
 (Vn  V p )  ln pn  ln p p  ln n (5-6)
kT pp
The derivation of V0 (cont’d)

Since Vn-Vp=V0,, Eq. (5-6) becomes

kT p p (5-7)
V0  ln
q pn
If we consider the step junction to be made up of material with Na acceptors/cm3 on
the p-side and a concentration of Nd donors on the n-side, we can write Eq. (5-7) as:

kT N kT N a N d
V0  ln 2 a  ln (5-8)
q ni / N d q n i2

Another useful form of Eq. (5-7) is


pp nn
  e qV0 / kT (5-10)
pn n p

(We used equilibrium condition pnnn=ni2=ppnp in getting Eq. (5-10))


5.2.2 Equilibrium Fermi Levels

Since we have assumed that pn and pp are given by their equilibrium values outside the
transition region, we have

pp 
 E E / kT
N v e Fp vp
 e qV0 / kT  (5-11a)
pn N v e  EFn  Evn / kT

EFn  EFp / kT Evp  Evn / kT

e qV0 / kT  e e (5-11b)

 EFn  EFp  qV0  Evp  Evn (5-12)

(At equilibrium)

When bias V is applied to the junction,

• the potential barrier is raised or lowered from the value of V0

• the Fermi levels are shifted with respect to each other by the amount of eV