The

Endocrine
System
Intro to the Endocrine System

 System of ductless glands that secrete hormones into

the blood.
 Endocrine system, along with the nervous system,
function in the regulation of body activities.
 The nervous system – acts through electrical impulses
and neurotransmitters to cause muscle contraction
and glandular secretion.
 The endocrine system – acts through chemical
messengers called hormones that influence growth,
development, and metabolic activities.
 The action of the endocrine system is measured in
minutes, hours, or weeks and is more generalized
than the action of the nervous system

2 Major Categories of Glands in the body:

1. Exocrine glands – have ducts that carry their
secretory product to a surface or into a cavity (i.e.,
sweat, sebaceous, mammary, & glands that secrete
digestive enzymes)
2. Endocrine glands – ductless, and the secretory
products are hormones  directly secreted to blood
 Characteristics of Hormones

 Chemically, hormones are either proteins or steroids.

 All hormones in the human body, except the sex
hormones and those from the adrenal cortex, are
proteins or protein derivatives.
- Their fundamental building blocks are amino acids.
- These hormones are difficult to administer orally
because they are quickly inactivated by the acid and
pepsin in the stomach.
- These hormones must be administered by injection.
 Sex hormones and those from the adrenal cortex are
steroids, which are lipid derivatives.
- These hormones are lipid-soluble, and may be taken
orally.
 Hormones are “messenger molecules”
 Circulate in the blood
 Act on distant target cells
 Target cells respond to the hormones for which they
have receptors
 The effects are dependent on the programmed
response of the target cells
 Hormones are just molecular triggers
Mechanism of Hormone Action

1. Hormones react with receptor sites on selected

cells.
- All the cells that have receptor sites for a given
hormone make up the target tissue for that hormone.
2. Protein hormones react with receptors on the
surface of the cell; Steroid hormones react with
receptors inside the cell.
 The type of action in protein hormone-receptor
reaction is relatively rapid because the precursors are
already present and they just need to be activated.
 The type of action in steroid hormone-receptor
complex is relatively slow because mRNA and
proteins actually have to be synthesized rather than
just activated.
Protein Hormone-Receptor Action
Steroid Hormone-Receptor Action
 Control of Hormone Action

 Hormones are very potent substances, which means

that very small amounts of it may have profound
effects on metabolic processes.
 Because of their potency, hormone secretion must be
regulated within very narrow limits to maintain
homeostasis in the body.
 Many hormones are regulated by a negative feedback
mechanism; some hormones are secreted in response
to other hormones; and a third method for regulating
hormone secretion is by direct nerve stimulation.
Humoral
 In this type of system, a gland is sensitive to the
concentration of a substance that it regulates.
 This causes a reversal of increases and decreases in
body conditions to maintain a state of stability or
homeostasis.
Hormonal
 The hormones that cause secretion of other
hormones are called “tropic” hormones.
 A hormone from gland “A” causes gland “B” to
secrete its hormone.
- ex: TSH from the anterior pituitary gland causes the
thyroid gland to secrete the hormone thyroxin.
Neural
 A nerve stimulus causes a gland to secrete its
hormone.
 A physiologic example of this mechanism is the
sympathetic nerve stimulation of the adrenal medulla,
which responds by secreting epinephrine
(adrenaline).
 Endocrine Glands and their
Hormones

 Pituitary Gland
 Thyroid Gland
 Parathyroid Gland
 Adrenal Gland
 Pancreas – Islets of Langerhans
 Gonads
 Pineal Glands
 Other Endocrine Glands
 Pituitary Gland

 Also called hypophysis

 This gland is connected to the hypothalamus of the
brain by a slender stalk called infundibulum.
 Anterior portion – consists of epithelial cells derived
from embryonic oral cavity – called adenohypophysis
 Posterior portion – is an extension of the brain and
consists of neurons and neuroglia – called
neurohypophysis
 Mechanisms that regulate the
anterior and posterior regions of the
Pituitary Gland

 Anterior portion of the pituitary gland – regulated by

releasing and inhibiting hormones from the
hypothalamus

 Posterior portion of the pituitary gland – regulated

directly by neurons from the hypothalamus
 Hormones of the Anterior Lobe
(Adenohypophysis)
Growth Hormones
 is a protein that stimulates the growth of bones, muscles, and
other organs by promoting protein synthesis.
 Its target tissue are most tissues in the body
 Hyposecretion of the hormone in a child leads to pituitary dwarf
of normal proportions but small stature. (short legs or torso)
 Hypersecretion of the hormone in a child results in exaggerated
bone growth (giant)
 Acromegaly is a disorder that results from excess growth
hormone after the growth plates have closed, and is
characterized by an abnormally large bones of the hand, feet or
face
 Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
 Also called thyrotropin
 This hormone causes the glandular cells of the thyroid to
secrete thyroid hormone
 Its target tissue is the thyroid gland
 Hypersecretion of this hormone – thyroid gland enlarges and
secretes too much thyroid hormone
 Hyposecretion of this hormone – results in atrophy of the
thyroid gland and too little hormone
 Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
 Its target tissue is the adrenal cortex
 This hormone reacts with receptor sites in the cortex
of the adrenal gland to stimulate the secretion of
cortical hormones, particularly cortisol
 ACTH also affects the melanocytes in the skin and
increases pigmentation
 Gonadotropic hormones react with receptor sites in
the gonads – ovaries and testes – to regulate the
development, growth and function of these organs.
 Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) – stimulates the
development of eggs or ova in the ovaries and of
sperm in the testes.
- In addition, FSH may be stimulates estrogen
production in the female
- Luteinizing hormone (LH) – causes ovulation and the
production and secretion of the female sex hormones
– progesterone and estrogen
- In the male, LH is sometimes called interstitial cell –
stimulating hormone (ICSH) because it stimulates the
interstitial cells of the testes to produce and secrete
the male sex hormone testosterone
- Without the gonadotropins FSH and LH, the ovaries
and testes decrease in size, ova and sperm are not
produced, and sex hormones are not produced.
 Prolactin
 Also known as lactogenic hormone
 This hormone promotes the development of glandular tissue in
the female breast during pregnancy and stimulates milk
production after the birth of the infant.
 Hyposecretion of prolactin generally presents no problem
except in women who choose to breast-feed their babies.
 Hypersecretion is more common and is usually the result of
pituitary tumors; this causes inappropriate lactation and lack of
menstruation in females; In males, it results in impotence.
 Hormones of the Posterior Lobe
(Neurohypophysis)

Antidiuretic Hormone
 It promotes the reabsorption of water by the kidney tubules, with
the result that less water is lost as urine.
 This mechanism conserves water for the body.
 Insufficient amounts of ADH cause excessive water loss in the urine
 very large amount of a very diluted urine being produced 
Diabetes insipidus
 Large amounts of ADH causes blood vessels to constrict, which
increases BP; for this reason, ADH is sometimes called vasopressin.
 Ingestion of alcoholic beverages inhibits ADH secretion  increase
urine output.
 Oxytocin
 It causes contraction of the smooth muscle in the wall of the
uterus (uterine lining).
 It also stimulates the ejection of milk from the lactating breast.
 A commercial preparation of this hormone, called Pitocin, is
sometimes used to induce labor.
 Oxytocin, or similar synthetic drugs, may be used to hasten the
delivery of the placenta, to control bleeding after delivery, or to
stimulate milk ejection.
 Thyroid Gland

 It is a very vascular organ that is located in the neck.

 It consists of two lobes, one on each side of the trachea, just
below the larynx or voice box.
 The two lobes are connected by a narrow band of tissue called
the isthmus.
 Internally, the gland consists of follicles (composed of simple
cuboidal epithelium) filled with a colloid and parafollicular cells
interspersed between the follicles.
 The follicles secrete the hormones that contain iodine, such as
T3 and T4.
 The parafollicular cells secrete calcitonin.
 Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3)
 T4 – 95%; T3 – 5%
 Both of these require iodine for their synthesis.
 Thyroid hormone secretion is regulated by releasing hormones
from the hypothalamus and by the circulating thyroid hormones
that exert an inhibiting influence on the anterior pituitary and
hypothalamus.
 In Iodine deficiency – the thyroid cannot make sufficient hormone.
- This stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete TSH, which causes
the thyroid gland to increase in size in an attempt to produce more
hormone.
 However, it cannot produce more hormone because it does not
have the necessary raw materials “iodine”.
 This type of thyroid enlargement is called simple goiter or
iodine deficiency goiter.
 The thyroid hormone (T3 & T4) help to regulate the metabolism
of CHOs, CHONs, and lipids in the body.
- They do not have a single target organ; instead, they affect
most of the cells in the body.
- They increase the rate at which cells release energy from CHOs,
they enhance CHON synthesis, they are necessary for normal
growth and development, and they stimulate the nervous
system.
 In the infant, a deficiency or lack of thyroid hormone,
hypothyroidism, results in a condition called cretinism.
- A cretin is a mentally retarded dwarf with abnormal skeletal
feature.
- Hormone therapy, if started within 2 months or less after birth
prevent severe mental retardation
 In adult, hypothyroidism results in a condition called
myxedema, which is characterized by lethargy, weight gain, loss
of hair, decreased body temp, low metabolic rate, and slow
heart rate; hormone therapy, in appropriate doses, usually
alleviates these symptoms.
 Hyperthyroidism results from an enlarged thyroid gland that
produces too much hormone.
- This is characterized by a high metabolic rate, hyperactivity,
insomnia, nervousness, irritability, and chronic fatigue.
- Individual with hyperthyroidism often has protruding eyes or
exophthalmos because there is swelling in the tissues behind
the eyes.
- Removal or destruction by radioactive iodine, of a portion of
the thyroid may effectively reduce the symptoms of
hyperthyroidism.
 Calcitonin
 Is secreted by the parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland.
 This hormone opposes the action of the parathyroid glands by
reducing the calcium level in the blood.
- If blood Ca ion level becomes too high, calcitonin is secreted
until Ca ion level decrease to normal.
 Calcitonin reduces blood Ca levels by:
1. reducing the rate at which Ca is released from bone,
2. increasing the rate of calcium excretion by the kidneys, and
3. reducing calcium absorption in the intestines.
 A deficiency of calcitonin does not seem to increase
blood calcium levels.
 Parathyroid Gland

 Secretes parathyroid hormone or parathormone (PTH)

 PTH is the most important regulator of blood calcium levels.
- This hormone is secreted in response to low blood Ca levels,
and its effect is to increase those levels.
- It does this by:
1. increasing osteoclast activity in bones so that Ca is released
from the bones into the blood
2. increasing calcium reabsorption from the kidney tubules into
the blood, which decreases the amount lost in the urine, and
3. increasing the absorption of dietary calcium in the intestines.
 Vit. D is also necessary for dietary calcium to be absorbed in the
TSH.
 PTH is antagonistic to calcitonin.
 Hypoparathyroidism, or insufficient secretion of PTH, 
increased nerve excitability.
 Tumors of the parathyroid gland may cause excessive secretion
of PTH or hyperparathyroidism which leads to osteoclast
activity that removes calcium from the bones and increases the
level in the blood  precipitation  kidney stones.
 Adrenal (Suprarenal) Glands

 Paired glands, with one gland located near the upper portion of
each kidney.
 Each gland is divided into an outer region – the adrenal cortex,
and an inner region – adrenal medulla
 The adrenal cortex is essential to life, but the medulla may be
removed with no life-threatening effects because its functions
are similar to those of the SNS.
 The hypothalamus of the brain influences both portion of the
adrenal gland but by different mechanisms.
 Adrenal medulla – receives direct stimulation from nerve
impulses  brain stem  spinal cord  SNS
 Adrenal cortex – the hypothalamus affects the cortex
by secreting ACTH-releasing hormone, which
stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete ACTH,
which then stimulates the adrenal cortex.
 Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex

Mineralocorticoids (secreted in the outermost region)

 As a group, these hormones help regulate blood volume and
the concentration of mineral electrolytes in the blood.
 The principal mineralocorticoid is aldosterone.
- Aldosterone primarily affects the kidneys; also acts on the
intestines, salivary glands, and sweat glands.
- In general, its effect is to conserve Na ions and water in the
body and to eliminate K ions.
- Aldosterone is secreted in direct response to Na and K ions.
 Tumors of the adrenal cortex may lead to hypersecretion of
mineralocorticoids which may lead to K depletion.
 When this occurs, neurons and muscle fibers become
less responsive to stimuli, which may lead to muscle
weakness, cramps, or paralysis.
 Glucocorticoids (secreted by the middle region)
 As a group, these hormones help regulate nutrient levels in the
blood.
 The principal glucocorticoid is cortisol (hydrocortisone).
 The overall effect of glucocorticoids is to increase blood
glucose levels.
 Cortisol does this by increasing the cellular metabolism of
proteins and fats as energy sources, thus conserving glucose.
- It also stimulates the liver cells to produce glucose from amino
acids and fats.
- These actions help to maintain appropriate blood glucose levels
between meals.
 Cortisol also helps to counteract the inflammatory
response.  it is used to reduce the inflammation in
certain allergic reactions, bursitis, and arthritis,
infections, and some types of cancer.
 Gonadocorticoids (Sex hormones) – secreted by the innermost
 Androgens (male hormones) and Estrogens (female hormones)