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 Reproduction is a process that ensures the survival of

species
 Through it, organisms can pass on their traits to their
offspring
 These traits are passed on regardless of the type of
reproduction involved
 Cells of all living things contain a special molecule called
DNA
 Plants and Animals
 Reproduction among living things can be accomplished
in one of two ways
 Asexual Reproduction – a single parent produces
offspring that are identical to the parent
 Sexual Reproduction – Two parents are required to
produce offspring whose traits come from both parents
 Flowering Plants or Angiosperms are adapted for sexual
reproduction
 Angiosperms have separate structures for producing male
and female gametes, but the reproductive organs of
angiosperms have two features
 First: Both the male and female structures usually occur
together in the same individual flower
 Second: Angiosperms’ reproductive structures are not
permanent parts of the adult individual
 Angiosperm flowers and reproductive organs develop
seasonally
 These flowering seasons correspond to times of the year
that are most favorable for pollination
 Pollen grains (male gametophyte) and the embryo sac
(female gametophyte) are produced in separate
specialized structures of the angiosperm flowers
 MALE: Stamen, Anther, Filament – male
reproductive organ, manufactures the pollen
 FEMALE: Pistil/Carpel – female reproductive organ;
Stigma – the sticky top which captures the pollen; Ovary
– contains the ovule that develops into a seed later on.
 COMPLETE FLOWER – having both stamen and
pistil, and can pollinate itself
 INCOMPLETE FLOWER – can either be staminate
or pistillate, needs cross-pollination to reproduce
 For sexual reproduction to take place, the pollen
containing male gametes must reach the stigma
 Since flowering plants cannot move about, they must
rely on other methods to move the pollen grains
 Pollination – transfer of pollen grains from the anther to
the stigma of the pistil
 May be self- or cross-pollination
 Self-pollination – occurs when pollen falls from the anther into the
stigma of the same flower
 Environmental factors such as wind patterns may affect the
pollination process
 More vibrant colors of the petals = insects will get easily attracted
 Cross-pollination – transfer of pollen to another plant of the same
species
 Ensures the genetic recombination, thus, it will produce a geater
variety of flora
 Fertilization in angiosperms is a complex process in which
two sperm cells (plants) are utilized = Creates the
ENDOSPERM and the EMBRYO
 This unique process is called DOUBLE FERTILIZATION
which occurs in two stages (Uses two sperm nuclei)
 First: One sperm nucleus fuses with the egg to form a diploid
zygote. This zygote will grow into the plant embryo
 Second: The other sperm nucleus fuses with the two
polar nuclei in the embryo sac to form the endosperm
 Fertilization causes rapid changes in the flower
 The ovule develop into a seed, often with tough coating
that protects the developing plant and its food supply
 Fruit – an enlarged ovary of a flowering plant that
contains the seed
 Many vegetables, including tomatoes, string beans,
cucumbers, and squash are actually fruits
 If the egg cells are not fertilized, the PERIANTH,
which is the outer structure of the flower, normally
withers and droops
 Fruits and seeds are dispersed by animals, wind, water
 The flavor, fragrance, and bright colors attract animals
 ANEMOPHILY
- the most common form of
abiotic pollination
- pollination by wind
 HYDROPHILY
- pollination by water
- it occurs in aquatic plants
as they release pollens
directly into the surrounding
water medium
 ENTIMOPHILY
- pollination carried out by insects
-This process of pollination occurs
in plants where they have colored
petals and a strong odor to attract
insects
ZOOPHILY
– the pollination performed
by animals in general
 ORNITHOPHILY
– the pollination performed by birds
 CHIROPEROPHILY
– the pollination performed by
bats
 Asexual reproduction in plants does not involve the
formation of flowers, fruits, or seeds
 A part of the plant (stem or root) produces a new plant
 All of the offspring are genetically identical to their
parent plant
 CLONES – offspring produced via asexual reproduction
 May occur naturally or artificially
 VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION – Naturally occurring
production of new plants from nonreproductive plant
parts
 Runners, shoots, buds
 ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION – when humans
manipulate the vegetative propagation in plants
 Cutting (stem), grafting (stem), budding (bud)
1. Cutting
- asexual form, a vegetative
plant part is severed from the
parent plant in order to
regenerate itself, thereby
forming a whole new plant
2. Grafting
- plant of a closely related
species or a different variety
of the same species to derive
the best qualities of different
species into a single plant
3. Layering
- Stems will be bend and it will
be covered by soil, eventually
the roots will grow into it, then
it will be severed from the main
plant when it can stand alone
4. Tissue Culture
- Indoor and asexual;
under sterile condition
in artificial growth
media
5. Apomixis
- production of seeds
without pollinating
union, such as the case
of lanzones and
mangosteen
 Asexual reproduction in animals occurs when the body
of the parent grows buds, which eventually falls off and
grows on its own
 This happens to animals that are stationary
 Advantage: produces numerous offspring
 Disadvantage: Genetic variation is absent; no
improvement in the characteristics of the animals
 Binary Fission
 Fragmentation
-An organism breaks into two
or more parts
-Ex. Starfish
-People used to think that a
starfish can be killed by
chopping them into pieces and
throwing them into the water
 Regeneration
-When a part was severed, each
parts regrows to a whole
individual
- Ex. Flat worms
 Hermaphrodism
- Both male and female
reproductive parts are present
- Ex. Cornu aspersum
 Metamorphosis
- For insects (arthropods)
-Process of transforming in a
different shape or form
-Incomplete: the young look like
the adults
-Complete: Insects lay eggs that
hatch into larvae that look
different from the adults
 Mating 
 Starts with ovulation then fertilization
 Depending on the animal, fertilization may occur either
outside or inside the female’s body
 External – for frogs, fishes, amphibians
 Internal – fusion of egg cell and sperm cell; for reptiles,
birds, mammals
END OF
EARTH AND
LIFE SCIENCE
LECTURE
***

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