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species
Through it, organisms can pass on their traits to their
offspring
These traits are passed on regardless of the type of
reproduction involved
Cells of all living things contain a special molecule called
DNA
Plants and Animals
Reproduction among living things can be accomplished
in one of two ways
Asexual Reproduction – a single parent produces
offspring that are identical to the parent
Sexual Reproduction – Two parents are required to
produce offspring whose traits come from both parents
Flowering Plants or Angiosperms are adapted for sexual
reproduction
Angiosperms have separate structures for producing male
and female gametes, but the reproductive organs of
angiosperms have two features
First: Both the male and female structures usually occur
together in the same individual flower
Second: Angiosperms’ reproductive structures are not
permanent parts of the adult individual
Angiosperm flowers and reproductive organs develop
seasonally
These flowering seasons correspond to times of the year
that are most favorable for pollination
Pollen grains (male gametophyte) and the embryo sac
(female gametophyte) are produced in separate
specialized structures of the angiosperm flowers
MALE: Stamen, Anther, Filament – male
reproductive organ, manufactures the pollen
FEMALE: Pistil/Carpel – female reproductive organ;
Stigma – the sticky top which captures the pollen; Ovary
– contains the ovule that develops into a seed later on.
COMPLETE FLOWER – having both stamen and
pistil, and can pollinate itself
INCOMPLETE FLOWER – can either be staminate
or pistillate, needs cross-pollination to reproduce
For sexual reproduction to take place, the pollen
containing male gametes must reach the stigma
Since flowering plants cannot move about, they must
rely on other methods to move the pollen grains
Pollination – transfer of pollen grains from the anther to
the stigma of the pistil
May be self- or cross-pollination
Self-pollination – occurs when pollen falls from the anther into the
stigma of the same flower
Environmental factors such as wind patterns may affect the
pollination process
More vibrant colors of the petals = insects will get easily attracted
Cross-pollination – transfer of pollen to another plant of the same
species
Ensures the genetic recombination, thus, it will produce a geater
variety of flora
Fertilization in angiosperms is a complex process in which
two sperm cells (plants) are utilized = Creates the
ENDOSPERM and the EMBRYO
This unique process is called DOUBLE FERTILIZATION
which occurs in two stages (Uses two sperm nuclei)
First: One sperm nucleus fuses with the egg to form a diploid
zygote. This zygote will grow into the plant embryo
Second: The other sperm nucleus fuses with the two
polar nuclei in the embryo sac to form the endosperm
Fertilization causes rapid changes in the flower
The ovule develop into a seed, often with tough coating
that protects the developing plant and its food supply
Fruit – an enlarged ovary of a flowering plant that
contains the seed
Many vegetables, including tomatoes, string beans,
cucumbers, and squash are actually fruits
If the egg cells are not fertilized, the PERIANTH,
which is the outer structure of the flower, normally
withers and droops
Fruits and seeds are dispersed by animals, wind, water
The flavor, fragrance, and bright colors attract animals
ANEMOPHILY
- the most common form of
abiotic pollination
- pollination by wind
HYDROPHILY
- pollination by water
- it occurs in aquatic plants
as they release pollens
directly into the surrounding
water medium
ENTIMOPHILY
- pollination carried out by insects
-This process of pollination occurs
in plants where they have colored
petals and a strong odor to attract
insects
ZOOPHILY
– the pollination performed
by animals in general
ORNITHOPHILY
– the pollination performed by birds
CHIROPEROPHILY
– the pollination performed by
bats
Asexual reproduction in plants does not involve the
formation of flowers, fruits, or seeds
A part of the plant (stem or root) produces a new plant
All of the offspring are genetically identical to their
parent plant
CLONES – offspring produced via asexual reproduction
May occur naturally or artificially
VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION – Naturally occurring
production of new plants from nonreproductive plant
parts
Runners, shoots, buds
ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION – when humans
manipulate the vegetative propagation in plants
Cutting (stem), grafting (stem), budding (bud)
1. Cutting
- asexual form, a vegetative
plant part is severed from the
parent plant in order to
regenerate itself, thereby
forming a whole new plant
2. Grafting
- plant of a closely related
species or a different variety
of the same species to derive
the best qualities of different
species into a single plant
3. Layering
- Stems will be bend and it will
be covered by soil, eventually
the roots will grow into it, then
it will be severed from the main
plant when it can stand alone
4. Tissue Culture
- Indoor and asexual;
under sterile condition
in artificial growth
media
5. Apomixis
- production of seeds
without pollinating
union, such as the case
of lanzones and
mangosteen
Asexual reproduction in animals occurs when the body
of the parent grows buds, which eventually falls off and
grows on its own
This happens to animals that are stationary
Advantage: produces numerous offspring
Disadvantage: Genetic variation is absent; no
improvement in the characteristics of the animals
Binary Fission
Fragmentation
-An organism breaks into two
or more parts
-Ex. Starfish
-People used to think that a
starfish can be killed by
chopping them into pieces and
throwing them into the water
Regeneration
-When a part was severed, each
parts regrows to a whole
individual
- Ex. Flat worms
Hermaphrodism
- Both male and female
reproductive parts are present
- Ex. Cornu aspersum
Metamorphosis
- For insects (arthropods)
-Process of transforming in a
different shape or form
-Incomplete: the young look like
the adults
-Complete: Insects lay eggs that
hatch into larvae that look
different from the adults
Mating
Starts with ovulation then fertilization
Depending on the animal, fertilization may occur either
outside or inside the female’s body
External – for frogs, fishes, amphibians
Internal – fusion of egg cell and sperm cell; for reptiles,
birds, mammals
END OF
EARTH AND
LIFE SCIENCE
LECTURE
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