SOLUTIONS AND THEIR

PROPERTIES

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2019-2020
I. Introduction
A) SOLUTION - A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances in a single
phase (gas, liquid, solid)

• SOLVENT - The component that makes up the bulk of the solution.

• SOLUTE - The component that dissolves in the solvent.
• SOLUBILITY (S) - the maximum amount of solute that dissolves in a fixed
quantity of a given solvent at a given temperature.

SODIUM CHLORIDE: S = 39.12g/100 ml water at 100 degrees centigrade

SILVER CHLORIDE: S = 0.0021g/100 ml water at 100 degrees centigrade

NOTE: Solubility is a quantitative term, but dilute and concentrated are

quantitative referring to the relative amounts of dissolved solute

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
2019-2020
I. CONCEPT CHECK

Identify the solvent and solute in each of the following solutions.

Explain your answer.

a. 25 grams of salt dissolved in 95 ml of water

b. 25 ml of water mixed with 75 ml of isopropyl

alcohol

c. Tincture of iodine prepared with 0.20 grams

of Iodine and 20 ml of ethanol
Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
2019-2020
Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
ANSWER THE FF.
a. Describe the sugar before it was mixed with
water.
b. What happens to sugar when it is placed in
water?
c. Knowing the characteristic of water in
previous lessons, why does water dissolve
sugar?
d. Describe what happens when water
dissolves sugar
Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
2019-2020
 SUGAR

1. The ball and stick

model, and first
spacing model show
that sucrose is a
large molecule
made up of carbon,
hydrogen and
oxygen.

2. Sucrose molecule
compose of many –
OH groups.

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
2019-2020
 SUGAR

3. The second space-

filling model shows two
sucrose molecules
held together by their
opposite polar areas

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
2019-2020
 SUGAR DISSOLVES

1. Water molecules
arrange themselves
around sucrose
molecules according
to opposite polar
areas.

2. The attraction of
water molecules and
their motion
overcome the
attraction among
sucrose molecules.
Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
2019-2020
 SUGAR DISSOLVES

3. Sucrose molecules
dissolve as they are
separated from other
molecules and mix into
the water

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
 Solutions

How does a solid dissolve

into a liquid?

What ‘drives’ the

dissolution process?

What are the energetics of

dissolution?

Gen.
Gen.Chem.
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2018-2019
 FORMATION OF SOLUTION
• The formation of solutions of sucrose and water
and of NaCl and water followed similar
processes.
• Forces of attraction between solvent molecules
are broken, forces of attraction between solute
molecules are also broken, while forces of
attraction are formed between solute and
solvent particles are formed.

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
2019-2020
 How Does a Solution Form?
1. Solvent molecules attracted to surface ions.
2. Each ion is surrounded by solvent molecules.
3. Enthalpy (DH) changes with each interaction broken or
formed.

Ionic solid dissolving in water

Gen.
Gen.Chem.
Chem.22
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2018-2019
How Does a Solution Form
The solid is solvated
(surrounded by
solvent).

If the solvent is water,

the solid are
hydrated.

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
2019-2020
 Dissolution vs reaction

dry
Ni(s) + HCl(aq) NiCl2(aq) + H2(g) NiCl2(s)

• Dissolution is a physical change—you can get back the

original solute by evaporating the solvent.
• If you can’t, the substance didn’t dissolve, it reacted.

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
2019-2020
Degree of saturation
• Saturated solution
 Solvent holds as much
solute as is possible at
that temperature.
 Undissolved solid
remains in flask.
 Dissolved solute is in
dynamic equilibrium
with solid solute
particles.

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
2019-2020
 Degree of saturation

• Unsaturated Solution
 Less than the
maximum amount of
solute for that
temperature is
dissolved in the
solvent.
 No solid remains in
flask.

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
 Degree of saturation

• Supersaturated
 Solvent holds more solute than is normally
possible at that temperature.
 These solutions are unstable; crystallization can
often be stimulated by adding a “seed crystal” or
scratching the side of the flask.
Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
 Degree of saturation

Unsaturated, Saturated or Supersaturated?

 How much solute can be dissolved in a solution?

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
II. Units of Concentration
moles solute (mol)
Molarity (M) 
liters solution (L)

moles solute (mol)

Molality (m) 
kilograms of solvent

• Note: molality includes the quantity of solvent, not of the solution

nA
Mole Fraction (X A ) 
nA  nB  nC  

• ratio of the number of moles of solute to the total number of

moles

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
2019-2020
II. Units of Concentration
• Naturally occurring solutions are often very dilute so
environmental chemists, biologists, geologists, etc. often use
parts per million (ppm).

1 mg 1 mg
Parts per million (ppm)  or
1 kg 1L

• Mass Percent

mass A
Weight % of A   100
mass A  mass B  mass C    

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
2019-2020
I. EXAMPLE

• PROBLEM:
What is the molality of the solution
prepared by dissolving 32.0 g of CaCl2 in 271 g
of water? (1.06 m CaCl2)

• FOLLOW UP:
How many grams of glucose must be
dissolved in 563 g of ethanol (C2H5OH) to
prepare a 2.4E-2 m of solution

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
2019-2020
II. EXAMPLE
• PROBLEM:
(a) Find the concentration of calcium ion (in
ppm) in a 3.50 g pill that contains 40.5 mg of
Ca2+. (1.16E4ppm)
(b) The label on a 0.750L bottle of Italian
chianti indicates “11.5% alcohol by volume.”
How many liters of alcohol does the bottle of
wine contain? (0.0862 L)
(c) A sample of rubbing alcohol contains 142
g of isopropyl alcohol (C3H7OH) and 58.0 g of
water. What is the mole fraction of water and
of alcohol? (0.423 and 0.577, repectively)
Gen. Chem. 2
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2019-2020
• FOLLOW UP:
An alcohol solution contains 35.0 g of 1-
propanol (C3H7OH) and 150 g of ethanol
(C2H5OH). Calculate the mass percent and the
mole fraction of each alcohol.

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
2019-2020
INTERCONVERTING CONCENTRATION UNITS
• All concentration terms are interconvertible

• To convert a term based on amount to one based on

mass, you need the molar mass.

• To convert a term based on mass to one based on

volume, you need the solution’s density. Given the mass
of solution, the density (mass/volume) gives the volume
or vice versa.

• Molality includes quantity of solvent, the other terms

include quantity of solution.

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
2019-2020
II. EXAMPLE
• PROBLEM:
Hydrogen Peroxide is a powerful oxidizing
agent used in concentrated solution in rocket
fuels and in dilute solutions in hair bleach. An
aqueous solution in H2O2 is 30% by mass and
has a density of 1.11g/ml. Calculate its
(a) molality (12.6 m H2O2)
(b) mole fraction of H2O2 (0.185)
(c) molarity (9.79 M H2O2)

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
2019-2020
II. ACTIVITY

• RUBRIC
ACCURACY = 40%
COOPERATION = 10 %
DISCIPLINE = 20 %
CLARITY OF THE OUTPUT = 10%
100 %

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
2019-2020
II. ACTIVITY

• PRESENTATION OF OUTPUT
Group # ______
Title of Activity:
Materials:
Procedure:
Data:
Illustration:
Observation/s:
Conclusion:

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
2019-2020
I. Introduction

A) Colligative Properties - Properties of solutions which depend on the

number of solute particles in the solution and not
the nature of the solute.

Four Colligative Properties

1)Vapor pressure lowering
2)Boiling point elevation
3)Freezing point depression
4)Osmosis

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
2019-2020
II. Units of Concentration
moles solute (mol)
Molarity (M) 
liters solution (L)
• Not useful in colligative properties because the exact amount of
solvent is unknown.
• The following concentration units reflect the number of solute
particles per solvent molecules and are useful with colligative
properties.
moles solute (mol) nA
Molality (m)  Mole Fraction (X A ) 
kilograms of solvent nA  nB  nC  

mass A
Weight % of A   100
mass A  mass B  mass C    

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
2019-2020
IV. Colligative Properties
A. Vapor Pressure Lowering
• The vapor pressure of the solution is lowered because the
solute particles at the liquid/vapor boundary block the
solvent particle from jumping into the vapor state.

Raoult’s Law

Psolv = XsolvPsolv
or
DPsolv = XsolutePsolv

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
IV. Colligative Properties
B. Boiling Point Elevation
• For nonvolatile, nonelectrolyte solvents the change in
boiling point (DTbp) is:

Kbp = boiling point elevation

DTbp = Kbpmsolute constant
msolute = molality of solute

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
 Predict the boiling point of the 1.25 m sucrose
solution

Plan: We first find the increase in boiling point from the

relationship ΔTb= Kbm. The boiling point is higher by this
amount than the normal boiling point of pure water.
Solution:
Kb for H2O = 0.512°C/m, so
Δ Tb = (0.512°C/m)(1.25 m) = 0.640°C
The solution would boil at a temperature that is 0.640°C
higher than pure water would boil.
The normal boiling point of pure water is exactly 100°C, so
at 1.00 atm this solution is predictedto boil at 100°C +
0.640°C = 100.640°C.
Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
IV. Colligative Properties
C. Freezing Point Depression
• For nonvolatile, nonelectrolyte solvents the change in
freezing point (DTfp) is:

Kfp = freezing point depression

DTfp = Kfpmsolute constant
msolute = molality of solute

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
Pure copper melts at 1083°C. Its molal
freezing point depression constant is
23°C/m. What will be the melting point of a
brass made of 10% Zn and 90% Cu by
mass?

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
IV. Colligative Properties
D. Colligative Properties and Molar Mass Determination
• Colligative properties can be used to determine the molar
mass of a solute when it is dissolved in a solvent of
appreciable vapor pressure and a known Kbp or Kfp.

Measure a
change in VP, Use mass g solute
BP elevation, Solution of solvent Moles of mol solute Molar
FP depression, Conc. Solute Mass
or osmotic
pressure.

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
 Molecular Weight from a
Colligative Property
Either camphor (C10H16O, molecular weight = 152 g/mol) or
naphthalene (C10H8, molecular weight = 128 g/mol) can be
used to make mothballs. A 5.2-gram sample of mothballs
was dissolved in 100. grams of ethyl alcohol, and the
resulting solution had a boiling point of 78.90°C. Were the
mothballs made of camphor or naphthalene? Pure ethyl
alcohol has a boiling point of 78.41°C; its Kb = 1.22°C/m.
Plan
We can distinguish between the two possibilities by
determining the molecular weight of the unknown solute.

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
IV. Colligative Properties
E. Colligative Properties of Solutions Containing Ions
• The change in VP, BP, FP, or osmotic pressure is greater than expected for electrolyte (ionic
salt) solutions.

Predicted BP elevation of an aqueous 0.100 m NaCl solution

DTbp = Kbp • msolute (For H2O Kbp = 0.5121 °C/m)
DTbp, calculated = (0.5121 °C/m)(0.100 m) = 0.05121
°C Actual BP elevation of an aqueous 0.100 m NaCl solution
DTbp, measured = 0.09470 °C (Almost double the DTbp calculated)
• Colligative properties depend on the total number of solute particles in solution. Ionic
compounds form ions in solution so the total number of solute particles in solution is equal
to the total ions in solution.

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
IV. Colligative Properties
E. Colligative Properties of Solutions Containing Ions
NaCl(s)  Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
0.100 m 0.100 m 0.100 m

0.200 m total
van’t Hoff factor (i)
DTbp , measured
i DTbp ,calculated  0.09470 C
0.05121 C
 1.85
So for ionic solutions:
DTbp  i K bp m DT fp  i K fp m

Psolvent  i X solvent P 
solvent
Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
IV. Colligative Properties
E. Colligative Properties of Solutions Containing Ions

Predicting van’t Hoff factors

NaCl(s)  Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
1 particle + 1 particle = 2 particles

ipredicted = 2

Na2SO4(s)  2 Na+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

2 particles + 1 particle = 3 particles

ipredicted = 3

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
IV. Colligative Properties
F. Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
Osmosis - The movement of solvent molecules through a
semipermeable membrane from a region of low
solute concentration to a region of high solute
concentration.

CHM 112 Summer 2007 M. Gen. Chem. 2

Prushan S.Y. 2018-2019
IV. Colligative Properties
F. Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
Osmotic Pressure - The pressure created by a column of
solution for a system in equilibrium.

Π  MRT
P  osmotic pressure
M = molar conc. (mol/L)
L atm
R = 0.08206 mol K
T = Temperature (K)

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
IV. Colligative Properties
F. Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
Reverse Osmosis is Used for Water Purification
 What osmotic pressure would the 1.25 m sucrose
solution in exhibit at 25°C?
The density of this solution is 1.34 g/mL.
Plan
•We note that the approximation M m is not very good for
this solution, because the density of this solution is quite
different from 1 g/mL or kg/L. Thus, we must first find the
molarity of sucrose, and then use the relationship ᴨ =
MRT.

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
 Factors Affecting Solubility
• Chemists use the axiom
“like dissolves like”:
 Polar substances tend to
dissolve in polar solvents.
 Nonpolar substances tend
to dissolve in nonpolar
solvents.

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
 Factors Affecting Solubility
The stronger the
intermolecular
attractions between
solute and solvent,
the more likely the
solute will dissolve.
Example: ethanol in water

Ethanol = CH3CH2OH
Intermolecular forces = H-bonds; dipole-dipole; dispersion

Ions in water also have ion-dipole forces.

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
 Factors Affecting Solubility
Glucose (which has
hydrogen bonding) is
very soluble in water.
Cyclohexane (which
only has dispersion
forces) is not water-
soluble.

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
Which
vitamin is
water-soluble
and which is
fat-soluble?

CHM 112 Summer 2007 M. Gen. Chem. 2

Prushan S.Y. 2018-2019
 Gases in Solution

• In general, the
solubility of gases in
water increases with
increasing mass.
Why?
• Larger molecules
have stronger
dispersion forces.

Gen. Chem. 2
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Gases in Solution

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
 Gases in Solution
• The solubility of
liquids and solids
Increasing does not change
pressure
above
appreciably with
solution pressure.
forces • But, the solubility of a
more gas gas in a liquid is
to dissolve.
directly proportional to
its pressure.

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
 Henry’s Law
Sg = kPg
where
• Sg is the solubility of
the gas;
• k is the Henry’s law
constant for that gas in
that solvent;
• Pg is the partial
pressure of the gas
above the liquid.
Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
Temperature
Generally, the
solubility of solid
solutes in liquid
solvents increases
with increasing
temperature.

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019
 Temperature
• The opposite is true of
gases. Higher
temperature drives
gases out of solution.

 Carbonated soft drinks

are more “bubbly” if
stored in the
refrigerator.
 Warm lakes have less
O2 dissolved in them
than cool lakes.

Gen. Chem. 2
S.Y. 2018-2019