Brayton Cycle

Chapter 9
Gas Power Systems

Learning Outcomes
►Conduct air-standard analyses of gas
turbine power plants based on the Brayton
cycle and its modifications, including the
ability to
►sketch T-s diagrams and evaluate property data
at principal states.
►applying mass, energy, entropy, and exergy
balances.
►determine net power output, thermal efficiency,
back work ratio, and the effects of compressor
pressure ratio on performance.
Considering Gas Turbine Power Plants (1 of 5)
►Gas turbine power plants are more quickly
constructed, less costly, and more compact than the
vapor power plants considered in Chapter 8.
►Gas turbines are suited for stationary power
generation as well as for powering vehicles,
including aircraft propulsion and marine power
plants.
►Gas turbines are
►increasingly used for large-scale power
generation, and
►for such applications fueled primarily by
natural gas, which is relatively abundant today.
►Gas turbines may operate on an open or closed basis, as
shown in the figures.
►The open gas turbine is more commonly used and is the
main focus of our study of gas turbines.
►Study of the individual components of these configurations
requires the control volume forms of the mass, energy, and
entropy balances.
Open to the atmosphere Closed
►The open mode gas turbine is an internal combustion
power plant.
►Air is continuously drawn into
the compressor where it is
compressed to a high pressure.
►Air then enters the combustion
chamber (combustor) where it
mixes with fuel and combustion
occurs.
►Combustion products exit
at elevated temperature and
The remainder is
pressure. Part of the available as net work
►Combustion products turbine work output to drive an
is used to electric generator, to
expand through the turbine drive the propel a vehicle, or
and then are discharged to the compressor. for other uses.
surroundings.
►The closed gas turbine operates as follows:
►A gas circulates through four components: turbine,
compressor, and two heat exchangers at higher and lower
operating temperatures, respectively.
►The turbine and compressor play the same roles as in the
open gas turbine.
►As the gas passes through the
higher-temperature heat
exchanger, it receives energy by
heat transfer from an external
source.
►The thermodynamic cycle is
completed by heat transfer to the
surroundings as the gas passes
through the lower-temperature
heat exchanger.
►The heat transfer associated with the higher-
temperature heat exchanger of the closed gas
turbine originates from an external source, which
may include
►External combustion of
biomass, municipal solid
waste, fossil fuels such as
natural gas, and other
combustibles.
►Waste heat from industrial
processes.
►Solar thermal energy.
►A gas-cooled nuclear
reactor.
Air-Standard Analysis of
Open Gas Turbine Power Plants
►To conduct elementary analyses of open gas turbine power
plants, simplifications are required. Although highly idealized,
an air-standard analysis can provide insights and qualitative
information about actual performance.
►An air-standard analysis has the following elements:
►The working fluid is air which behaves as an ideal gas.
Ideal gas relations are reviewed in Table 9.1.
►The temperature rise that would be brought about by
combustion is accomplished by heat transfer from an
external source.
►With an air-standard analysis, we avoid the complexities of
the combustion process and the change in composition
during combustion, which simplifies the analysis
considerably. Combustion is studied in Chapter 13.
►In a cold air-standard analysis, the specific heats are
assumed constant at their ambient temperature values.
Air-Standard Brayton Cycle (1 of 6)
►The schematic of a simple open air-standard gas turbine
power plant is shown in the figure.
►The energy transfers by heat and work are in the
directions of the arrows.
►Air circulates through the components:
►At state 1, air is drawn into the
compressor from the surroundings.
►Process 1-2: the air is
compressed from state 1 to
state 2.
►Process 2-3: The
temperature rise that would be
achieved in the actual power
plant with combustion is
realized here by heat transfer, Q in .
►Process 3-4: The high-pressure, high-temperature air
expands through the turbine. The turbine drives the
compressor and develops net power, W cycle.
►Air returns to the
surroundings at state 4 with a
temperature typically much
greater than at state 1.
►After interacting with the
surroundings, each unit of mass
returns to the same condition as
the air entering at state 1,
thereby completing a
thermodynamic cycle.
expands through the turbine from state 3 to state 4. The
turbine drives the compressor and develops net power, W cycle.
►Air returns to the
surroundings at state 4 with a
temperature typically much
greater than at state 1.
►After interacting with the
surroundings, each unit of mass
returns to the same condition as
the air entering at state 1,
thereby completing a
thermodynamic cycle.
►We imagine process 4-1 being
achieved by a heat exchanger, as
shown by the dashed line in the figure.
►Cycle 1-2-3-4-1 is called the Brayton cycle.
►The compressor pressure ratio, p2/p1, is a key
Brayton cycle operating parameter.
►Analyzing each component as a control
volume at steady state, assuming the
compressor and turbine operate
adiabatically, and neglecting kinetic and
potential energy effects, we get the following
expressions for the principal work and heat
transfers, which are positive in accord with
our convention for cycle analysis.
Turbine Heat addition
(Eq. 9.15) (Eq. 9.17)
Compressor Heat rejection

(Eq. 9.16) (Eq. 9.18)
►The thermal efficiency is
(Eq. 9.19)
►The back work ratio is
(Eq. 9.20)
Note: A relatively large portion of the work developed by the

turbine is required to drive the compressor. For gas turbines,
back work ratios range from 20% to 80% compared to only 1-2%
for vapor power plants.
►Since Eqs. 9.15 through 9.20 have been developed from mass
and energy balances, they apply equally when irreversibilities
are present and in the absence of irreversibilities.
Ideal Air-Standard Brayton Cycle (1 of 4)
►The ideal air-standard Brayton cycle provides an
especially simple setting for study of gas turbine power
plant performance. The ideal cycle adheres to additional
modeling assumptions:
►Frictional pressure drops are absent during flows through
the heat exchangers. These processes occur at constant
pressure. These processes are isobaric.
►Flows through the turbine and pump occur adiabatically
and without irreversibility. These processes are isentropic.
►Accordingly, the ideal Brayton cycle consists of two
isentropic processes alternated with two isobaric processes.
In this respect, the ideal Brayton cycle is in harmony with
the ideal Rankine cycle, which also consists of two
isentropic processes alternated with two isobaric processes
(Sec. 8.2.2).
►The ideal air-standard Brayton cycle consists of four
internally reversible processes:
Process1-2: Isentropic compression of air flowing through the
compressor.
Process 2-3: Heat transfer to the air as it flows at constant pressure
through the higher-temperature heat exchanger.
Process 3-4: Isentropic expansion of the air through the turbine.
Process 4-1: Heat transfer from the air as it flows at constant
pressure through the lower-temperature heat exchanger.
►Since the ideal Brayton cycle involves internally
reversible processes, results from Sec. 6.13 apply.
►On the p-v diagram, the work per unit of mass
flowing is –∫vdp. Thus on a per unit of mass flowing
basis,
►Area 1-2-a-b-1
represents the
compressor work input.
►Area 3-4-b-a-3
represents the turbine
work output.
►Enclosed area 1-2-3-4-1
represents the net work
developed.
►On the T-s diagram, the heat transfer per unit of
mass flowing is ∫Tds. Thus, on a per unit of mass
flowing basis,
►Area 2-3-a-b-2 represents
the heat added.
►Area 4-1-b-a-4 represents
the heat rejected.
►Enclosed area 1-2-3-4-1
represents the net heat
added or equivalently, the
net work developed.
Effects of Compressor Pressure Ratio on
Brayton Cycle Performance (1 of 7)
►That the compressor pressure ratio, p2/p1, is an
important operating parameter for gas turbines is
brought out simply by the following discussions
centering on the T-s diagram:
►Increasing the compressor pressure ratio from p2/p1 to
p2′/p1 changes the cycle from 1-2-3-4-1 to 1-2′-3′-4-1.
►Since the average temperature of heat
addition is greater in cycle 1-2′-3′-4-1, and
both cycles have the same heat rejection
process, cycle 1-2′-3′-4-1 has the greater
thermal efficiency.
both cycles have the same heat rejection 60
hth (%)
thermal efficiency.
►Accordingly, the Brayton cycle thermal 2 4 6 8 10
efficiency increases as the compressor Compressor
pressure ratio increases. Pressure Ratio
thermal efficiency.
►Accordingly, the Brayton cycle thermal
efficiency increases as the compressor
pressure ratio increases.
►The turbine inlet temperature also
increases with increasing compressor
ratio – from T3 to T3′.
Thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle
Wnet Qout
h th , Brayton   1
Qin Qin
Now to find Qin and Qout.
Apply the conservation of energy to process 2-3 for P = constant (no work), steady-
flow, and neglect changes in kinetic and potential energies.
E in  E out
m 2 h2  Q in  m
 3h3
The conservation of mass gives
 in  m
m  out
m2  m3  m
For constant specific heats, the heat added per unit mass flow is
Q in  m (h3  h2 )
Q in  mC
 p (T3  T2 )
Q in
qin   C p (T3  T2 ) 23
m
The conservation of energy for process 4-1 yields for constant specific heats (let’s
take a minute for you to get the following result)
Q out  m (h4  h1 )
Q out  mC
 p (T4  T1 )
Q out
qout   C p (T4  T1 )
m 
The thermal efficiency becomes
Q out q
h th , Brayton  1  1  out
Q in qin
C p (T4  T1 )
 1
C p (T3  T2 )
(T4  T1 )
h th , Brayton  1
(T3  T2 )
T1 (T4 / T1  1)
 1
T2 (T3 / T2  1)
24
Recall processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, so
Since P3 = P2 and P4 = P1, we see that

T2 T3 T4 T3
 or 
T1 T4 T1 T2
The Brayton cycle efficiency becomes
T1
h th , Brayton  1 
T2
Is this the same as the Carnot cycle efficiency?
Since process 1-2 is isentropic,
25
where the pressure ratio is rp = P2/P1 and
1
h th , Brayton  1  ( k 1)/ k
rp
26
thermal efficiency.
►Accordingly, the Brayton cycle thermal
efficiency increases as the compressor
pressure ratio increases.
►The turbine inlet temperature also
increases with increasing compressor
ratio – from T3 to T3′.
►However, there is a limit on the maximum
temperature at the turbine inlet imposed by
metallurgical considerations of the turbine blades.
►Let’s consider the effect of increasing compressor
pressure ratio on Brayton cycle performance when
the turbine inlet temperature is held constant.
►This is investigated using the T-s diagram as
presented next.
►The figure shows the T-s diagrams of two ideal
Brayton cycles having the same turbine inlet temperature
but different compressor pressure ratios.
►Cycle A has the greater
compressor pressure ratio and
thus the greater thermal efficiency.
►Cycle B has the larger enclosed
area and thus the greater net work
developed per unit of mass flow.
►For Cycle A to develop the same
net power as Cycle B, a larger
mass flow rate would be required
and this might dictate a larger
system.
►Accordingly, for turbine-powered vehicles, where
size and weight are constrained, it may be
desirable to operate near the compressor pressure
ratio for greater net work per unit of mass flow and
not the pressure ratio for greater thermal efficiency.
What happens to hth, win /wout, and wnet as the
pressure ratio rp is increased? Consider the T-s
diagram for the cycle and note that the area enclosed
by the cycle is the net heat added to the cycle. By the
first law applied to the cycle, the net heat added to the
cycle is equal to the net work done by the cycle. Thus,
the area enclosed by the cycle on the T-s diagram also
represents the net work done by the cycle.
31
Let's take a closer look at the effect of the pressure ratio on the net work done.
wnet  wturb  wcomp
 C p (T3  T4 )  C p (T2  T1 )
 C p T3 (1  T4 / T3 )  C p T1 (T2 / T1  1)
1 ( k 1)/ k
 C p T3 (1  ( k 1)/ k
)  C p T1 (rp  1)
rp
32
Note that the net work is zero when
k /( k 1)
T 
rp  1 and rp   3 
 T1 
For fixed T3 and T1, the pressure ratio that makes the work a maximum is obtained
from:
dwnet
0
drp
This is easier to do if we let X = rp(k-1)/k
1
wnet  C p T3 (1  )  C p T1 ( X  1)
X
dwnet
 C p T3[0  ( 1) X 2 ]  C p T1[1  0]  0
dX
Solving for X
33
Then, the rp that makes the work a maximum for the constant property case and fixed
T3 and T1 is
For the ideal Brayton cycle, show that the following results are true.
•When rp = rp, max work, T4 = T2
•When rp < rp, max work, T4 > T2
•When rp > rp, max work, T4 < T2
The following is a plot of net work per unit mass and the efficiency for the above
example as a function of the pressure ratio.
280 0.60
260 0.55
240 0.50
0.45
220
0.40
w net kJ/kg
hth,Brayton
200 T1 = 22C
0.35
180 P1 = 95 kPa
T3 = 1100 K 0.30
160 ht = hc = 100% 0.25
140 0.20
rp,max
120 0.15
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 34
Pratio
Gas Turbine Power Plant Irreversibility (1 of 3)
►The most significant irreversibility by far is the
irreversibility of combustion. This type of irreversibility is
considered in Chap. 13, where combustion fundamentals
are developed.
►Irreversibilities related to flow through the turbine and
compressor also significantly impact gas turbine
performance. They act to
►decrease the work developed by the turbine and
►increase the work required by the compressor,
►thereby decreasing the net work of the power plant.
W net W t Wc irreversiblities increase

  compressor work
m 
m 
m
marked decrease in net irreversibilites decrease
work of the power plant turbine work
►Isentropic turbine efficiency, introduced in Sec. 6.12.1,
accounts for the effects of irreversibilities within the turbine in
terms of actual and isentropic turbine work, each per unit of
mass flowing through the turbine.
work developed in the actual
expansion from turbine inlet state
to the turbine exit pressure
(W t / m ) (h3  h4 )
ht   
(Wt / m ) s (h3  h4s )
work developed in an isentropic

expansion from turbine inlet
state to exit pressure
►Isentropic compressor efficiency, introduced in Sec.

6.12.3, accounts for the effects of irreversibilities within the
compressor in terms of actual and isentropic compressor work
input, each per unit of mass flowing through the compressor.
work input for an isentropic process from

compressor inlet state to exit pressure
(W c / m ) s (h2s  h1 )
hc   
(Wc / m ) (h2  h1 )
work input for the actual process from compressor

inlet state to the compressor exit pressure
Example 9-2
The ideal air-standard Brayton cycle operates with air entering the compressor at 95
kPa, 22oC. The pressure ratio rp is 6:1 and the air leaves the heat addition process at
1100 K. Determine the compressor work and the turbine work per unit mass flow,
the cycle efficiency, the back work ratio, and compare the compressor exit
temperature to the turbine exit temperature. Assume constant properties.
Apply the conservation of energy for steady-flow and neglect changes in kinetic and
potential energies to process 1-2 for the compressor. Note that the compressor is
isentropic.
E in  E out
m h  W
1 1 comp  m 2 h2
The conservation of mass gives
 in  m
m  out
1  m
m 2  m 
38
For constant specific heats, the compressor work per unit mass flow is
Wcomp  m (h2  h1 )
Wcomp  mC
 p (T2  T1 )
Wcomp
wcomp   C p (T2  T1 )
m
Since the compressor is isentropic
39
wcomp  C p (T2  T1 )
kJ
 1005
. (492.5  295) K
kg  K
kJ
 19815
.
kg
The conservation of energy for the turbine, process 3-4, yields for constant specific
heats (let’s take a minute for you to get the following result)
Wturb  m (h3  h4 )
Wturb  mC
 p (T3  T4 )
Wturb
wturb   C p (T3  T4 )
m
Since process 3-4 is isentropic
40
Since P3 = P2 and P4 = P1, we see that
( k 1) / k
T4  1 
 
T3  rp 
( k 1) / k
1  1
(1.4 1) /1.4
T4  T3    1100 K    659.1 K
r 6
 p 
kJ
wturb  C p (T3  T4 )  1005
. (1100  659.1) K
kg  K
kJ
 442.5
kg
We have already shown the heat supplied to the cycle per unit mass flow in process
2-3 is m 2  m 3  m
m h  Q  m h
2 2 in 3 3
Q in
qin   h3  h2
m
kJ
 C p (T3  T2 )  1005
. (1100  492.5) K
kg  K
kJ
 609.6 41
kg
The net work done by the cycle is
kJ
 (442.5  19815
. )
kg
kJ
 244.3
kg
The cycle efficiency becomes
wnet
h th , Brayton 
qin
kJ
244.3
kg
  0.40 or 40%
kJ
609.6
kg
42
The back work ratio is defined as
win wcomp
BWR  
wout wturb
kJ
19815.
kg
  0.448
kJ
442.5
kg
Note that T4 = 659.1 K > T2 = 492.5 K, or the turbine outlet temperature is greater
than the compressor exit temperature. Can this result be used to improve the cycle
efficiency?
43
Gas Turbine Power Plant Loss
►The exhaust gas temperature of a simple gas turbine is

typically well above the ambient temperature. Thus, the
exhaust gas has considerable thermodynamic utility (exergy)
that would be irrevocably lost were the gas discharged
directly to the ambient.
►Regenerative gas turbines and gas turbine-based
combined cycles aim to avoid such a significant loss by
using the hot exhaust gas cost-effectively.
►At normal p2/p1 ratios and turbine inlet temperatures,
turbine outlet temperatures is always above compressor
outlet temperature. Remember example?. An improvement
in performance can be attained adding a heat exchanger to
transfer heat from the gases at the turbine outlet to the air
coming out of the compressor before entering the CC.
Regenerative Gas Turbines
►The hot turbine exhaust can be utilized with a preheater
called a regenerator.
►The regenerator allows air exiting the
compressor to be preheated, process 2-x,
as the turbine exhaust gas cools, process
4-y.
►Preheating reduces the heat added per
unit of mass flowing (and thus the amount
of fuel that must be burned):
With Regeneration Without Regeneration
Q in Q in
 (h3  hx )  (h3  h2 )
m m
►The net work per unit of mass flowing is not altered with the
inclusion of a regenerator. Accordingly, since the heat added is
reduced, thermal efficiency increases.
Regenerator Effectiveness (1 of 3)
►Since a finite temperature difference must exist
between the two streams of the regenerator for heat
transfer to take place between the streams, the cold-
side exiting temperature, Tx, must be less than the
hot-side entering temperature, T4.
►As the stream-to-stream
temperature difference becomes
small Tx approaches T4, but
cannot exceed it. Accordingly, T4
Tx ≤ T4.
►As the enthalpy of the air
varies only with temperature, we
also have hx ≤ h4.
►The regenerator effectiveness is defined as
the ratio of the actual enthalpy increase of the air
flowing through the cold side of the regenerator,
hx – h2, to the maximum theoretical enthalpy
increase, h4 – h2.
(Eq. 9.27)
►In practice, regenerator effectiveness values
range from 60-80%, approximately. Thus, the
temperature Tx at the combustor inlet is invariably
below the temperature T4 at the turbine exit.
►Selection of a regenerator is largely an
economic decision.
►With regeneration less fuel is consumed by the
combustor but another component, the
regenerator, is required.
►When considering use of a regenerator, the
trade-off between fuel savings and regenerator
cost must be weighed.
We define the regenerator effectiveness regen as the ratio of the heat transferred to
the compressor gases in the regenerator to the maximum possible heat transfer to
the compressor gases.
qregen , act  h5  h2
qregen , max  h5'  h2  h4  h2
qregen , act h5  h2
 regen  
qregen , max h4  h2
49
For ideal gases using the cold-air-standard assumption with constant specific heats,
the regenerator effectiveness becomes
T5  T2
 regen 
T4  T2
Using the closed cycle analysis and treating the heat addition and heat rejection as
steady-flow processes, the regenerative cycle thermal efficiency is
qout
h th , regen  1
qin
h h
 1 6 1
h3  h5
Notice that the heat transfer occurring within the regenerator is not included in the
efficiency calculation because this energy is not heat transferred across the cycle
boundary.
Assuming an ideal regenerator regen = 1 and constant specific heats, the thermal
efficiency becomes (take the time to show this on your own)
50
When does the efficiency of the air-standard Brayton cycle equal the efficiency of the
air-standard regenerative Brayton cycle? If we set hth,Brayton = hth,regen then
Recall that this is the pressure ratio that maximizes the net work for the simple
Brayton cycle and makes T4 = T2. What happens if the regenerative Brayton cycle
operates at a pressure ratio larger than this value?
51
For fixed T3 and T1, pressure ratios greater than this value cause T4 to be less than
T2, and the regenerator is not effective.
What happens to the net work when a regenerator is added?
What happens to the heat supplied when a regenerator is added?
The following shows a plot of the regenerative Brayton cycle efficiency as a function
of the pressure ratio and minimum to maximum temperature ratio, T1/T3.
52
Example 9-3: Regenerative Brayton Cycle
Air enters the compressor of a regenerative gas-turbine engine at 100 kPa and 300 K
and is compressed to 800 kPa. The regenerator has an effectiveness of 65 percent,
and the air enters the turbine at 1200 K. For a compressor efficiency of 75 percent
and a turbine efficiency of 86 percent, determine
(a) The heat transfer in the regenerator.
(b) The back work ratio.
(c) The cycle thermal efficiency.
Compare the results for the above cycle with the ones listed below that have the
same common data as required. The actual cycles are those for which the turbine
and compressor isentropic efficiencies are less than one.
(a) The actual cycle with no regeneration,  = 0.
(b) The actual cycle with ideal regeneration,  = 1.0.
(c) The ideal cycle with regeneration,  = 0.65.
(d) The ideal cycle with no regeneration,  = 0.
(e) The ideal cycle with ideal regeneration,  = 1.0.
We assume air is an ideal gas with constant specific heats, that is, we use the cold-
air-standard assumption.
53
The cycle schematic is the same as above and the T-s diagram showing the effects of
compressor and turbine efficiencies is below.
T-s Diagram for Gas Turbine with Regeneration
800 kPa
100 kPa
T
5
2a 4a
2s 4s
6
54
Summary of Results
Cycle type Actual Actual Actual Ideal Ideal Ideal
regen 0.00 0.65 1.00 0.00 0.65 1.00
hcomp 0.75 0.75 0.75 1.00 1.00 1.00
hturb 0.86 0.86 0.86 1.00 1.00 1.00
qin kJ/kg 578.3 504.4 464.6 659.9 582.2 540.2
wcomp kJ/kg 326.2 326.2 326.2 244.6 244.6 244.6
wturb kJ/kg 464.6 464.6 464.6 540.2 540.2 540.2
wcomp/wturb 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.453 0.453 0.453
hth 24.0% 27.5% 29.8% 44.8% 50.8% 54.7%
55
Compressor analysis
The isentropic temperature at compressor exit is

( k 1) / k
T2 s  P2 
 
T1  P1 
( k 1) / k
P  800kPa (1.41) /1.4
T2 s  T1  2   300 K ( )  543.4 K
 P1  100kPa
To find the actual temperature at compressor exit, T2a, we apply the compressor
efficiency
wisen , comp h2 s  h1 T2 s  T1
h comp   
wact , comp h2 a  h1 T2 a  T1
1
T2 a  T1  (T2 s  T1 )
h comp
1
 300 K  (543.4  300) K
0.75
 624.6 K
56
Since the compressor is adiabatic and has steady-flow
wcomp  h2 a  h1  C p (T2 a  T1 )
kJ kJ
 1.005 (624.6  300) K  326.2
kg  K kg
Turbine analysis
The conservation of energy for the turbine, process 3-4, yields for constant specific
heats (let’s take a minute for you to get the following result)
Wturb  m (h3  h4 a )
Wturb  mC
 p (T3  T4 a )
Wturb
wturb   C p (T3  T4 a )
m
57
Since P3 = P2 and P4 = P1, we can find the isentropic temperature at the turbine exit.
( k 1) / k
T4 s  P4 
 
T3  P3 
( k 1) / k
 P4  100kPa (1.41) /1.4
T4 s  T3    1200 K ( )  662.5K
 P3  800kPa
To find the actual temperature at turbine exit, T4a, we apply the turbine efficiency.
wact , turb h3  h4 a T3  T4 a
h turb   
wisen , turb h3  h4 s T3  T4 s
T4 a  T3  h turb (T3  T4 s )
 1200 K  0.86(1200  662.5) K
 737.7 K  T2 a
58
The turbine work becomes
wturb  h3  h4 a  C p (T3  T4 a )
kJ
 1005
. (1200  737.7) K
kg  K
kJ
 464.6
kg
The back work ratio is defined as
win wcomp
BWR  
wout wturb
kJ
326.2
kg
  0.70
kJ
464.6
kg
59
Regenerator analysis
To find T5, we apply the regenerator effectiveness.

T5  T2 a
 regen 
T4 a  T2 a
T5  T2 a   regen (T4 a  T2 a )
 624.6 K  0.65(737.7  624.6) K
 6981
.K
60
To find the heat transferred from the turbine exhaust gas to the compressor exit gas,
apply the steady-flow conservation of energy to the compressor gas side of the
regenerator.
m 2 a h2 a  Q regen  m 5h5
m 2 a  m 5  m
Q regen
qregen   h5  h2 a
m
 C p (T5  T2 a )
kJ
 1005
. .  624.6) K
(6981
kg  K
kJ
 73.9
kg
61
Using qregen, we can determine the turbine exhaust gas temperature at the
regenerator exit.
m4 a h4 a  Qregen  m6 h6
m4 a  m6  m
Qregen
qregen   h4 a  h6  C p (T4 a  T6 )
m
kJ
73.9
qregen kg
T6  T4 a   737.7 K 
Cp kJ
1.005
kg  K
 664.2 K
62
Heat supplied to cycle
Apply the steady-flow conservation of energy to the heat exchanger for process 5-3.
We obtain a result similar to that for the simple Brayton cycle.
qin  h3  h5  C p (T3  T5 )
kJ
 1005
. (1200  6981
. )K
kg  K
kJ
 504.4
kg
Cycle thermal efficiency
The net work done by the cycle is

kJ kJ
 (464.6  326.2)  138.4
kg kg
63
The cycle efficiency becomes
wnet
h th , Brayton 
qin
kJ
138.4
kg
  0.274 or 27.4%
kJ
504.4
kg
You are encouraged to complete the calculations for the other values found in the
summary table.
64
Gas Turbines with Reheat and Regeneration (1 of 3)
►A modification of the Brayton cycle that increases
the net work developed is multistage expansion
with reheat.
►The figure shows a cycle with two turbine stages
and a reheat combustor between the stages.
►The ideal Brayton cycle with reheat is 1-2-3-a-b-4-1.
The ideal Brayton cycle without reheat is 1-2-3-4′-1.
►The reheat cycle has a larger enclosed area than
the cycle without reheat and thus a greater net work
developed per unit of mass flowing, which is the aim.
Cycle without reheat
Cycle with reheat

►The figure also shows that the temperature at the exit
of the second-stage turbine, state 4, is greater than at
the exit of the single turbine of the cycle without reheat,
state 4′. Accordingly, with reheat the potential for
regeneration is also enhanced.
►When reheat and regeneration are used together, the
thermal efficiency can increase significantly over that for
the cycle without reheat.
T4
T4′
Gas Turbines with
Intercooling and Regeneration (1 of 5)
►Another modification of the Brayton cycle that
increases the net work developed is compression
with intercooling.
►The figure shows two compressor stages and an
intercooler between the stages.
Gas Turbines with
►The accompanying p-v diagram
shows the processes for internally
reversible operation:
►Process 1-c. Isentropic
compression from state 1, where
pressure is p1, to state c, where
pressure is pi.
►Process c-d. Constant-pressure
cooling from temperature Tc to
temperature Td.
►Process d-2. Isentropic
compression to state 2, where
pressure is p2.
►Isentropic compression without intercooling is
represented by process 1-c-2′.
Gas Turbines with
►Recalling that for such internally reversible processes the
work input per unit of mass flowing is given by ∫vdp, the
following area interpretations apply, each per unit of mass
flowing:
►With intercooling, area 1-c-d-2-a-b-1
represents the work input.
►Without intercooling, area 1-2′-a-b-1
represents the work input.
►The cross-hatched area c-d-2-2′-c
represents the reduction in work
achieved with intercooling.
►If the total turbine work remains the same, a reduction in
compressor work results in an increase in the net work
developed, which is the aim.
Gas Turbines with
►While compression with and without intercooling each
bring the air to the same final pressure, p2, the final
temperature with intercooling, T2, is lower than the final
temperature without intercooling, T2′.
►Comparing states 2 and 2′ on the T-s diagram, T2 < T2′.
►The lower temperature at the compressor exit with
intercooling enhances the potential for regeneration.
T2′
T2
Gas Turbines with
►When compression with intercooling is used together with
regeneration, the thermal efficiency can increase significantly
over that for the cycle without intercooling.
►The T-s diagram also shows that for cooling to the
surroundings the temperature Td at the intercooler exit
cannot be less than T1, the temperature of the air entering
the compressor from the surroundings: Td ≥ T1.
Td
T1
Intercooling
When using multistage compression, cooling the working fluid between the stages
will reduce the amount of compressor work required. The compressor work is
reduced because cooling the working fluid reduces the average specific volume of
the fluid and thus reduces the amount of work on the fluid to achieve the given
pressure rise.
To determine the intermediate pressure at which intercooling should take place to

minimize the compressor work, we follow the approach shown in Chapter 7.
For the adiabatic, steady-flow compression process, the work input to the compressor
per unit mass is
4 3 0
2 4
wcomp =  v dP =  v dP   v dP   v dP
1 3
1 2
73
For the isentropic compression process
k k
wcomp = ( P2 v2  Pv1 1)  ( P4 v4  P3v3 )
k -1 k -1
k kR
 R(T2  T1 )  (T4  T3 )
k -1 k -1
k
 R T1 (T2 / T1  1)  T3 (T4 / T3  1) 
k -1
k    P2 
( k 1) / k
   P4 
( k 1) / k

 R T1     1  T3     1 
k -1    P1     P3  
    
Notice that the fraction kR/(k-1) = Cp.
Can you obtain this relation another way? Hint: apply the first law to processes 1-4.
74
For two-stage compression, let’s assume that intercooling takes place at constant
pressure and the gases can be cooled to the inlet temperature for the compressor,
such that P3 = P2 and T3 = T1.
The total work supplied to the compressor becomes
To find the unknown pressure P2 that gives the minimum work input for fixed
compressor inlet conditions T1, P1, and exit pressure P4, we set
dwcomp ( P2 )
0
dP2
75
This yields
P2  P1 P4
or, the pressure ratios across the two compressors are equal.
P2 P4 P4
 
P1 P2 P3
Intercooling is almost always used with regeneration. During intercooling the
compressor final exit temperature is reduced; therefore, more energy must be
supplied in the heat addition process to achieve the maximum temperature of the
cycle. Regeneration can make up part of the required heat transfer.
To supply only compressed air, using intercooling requires less work input. The next
time you go to a home supply store where air compressors are sold, check the larger
air compressors to see if intercooling is used. For the larger air compressors, the
compressors are made of two piston-cylinder chambers. The intercooling heat
exchanger is often a pipe with a attached fins that connects the large piston-cylinder
chamber with the smaller piston-cylinder chamber. Often the fly wheel used to drive
the compressor has spokes shaped like fan blades that are used to increase air flow
across the compressor and heat exchanger pipe to improve the intercooling effect.
76
Shown here is a two-stage, 7.5 hp air compressor with intercooling.
Photo by M. Boles 77
Regenerative Gas Turbine
with Reheat and Intercooling (1 of 3)
►Shown here is a regenerative gas turbine that
incorporates reheat and intercooling.
►With these modifications to the basic Brayton cycle:
►The net work
output is
increased.
►The thermal
efficiency is
increased.
►Applying mass and energy rate
balances at steady state, we
obtain the following expressions,
each per unit of mass flowing:
►Total turbine work:
W t
= (h6 – h7) + (h8 – h9) = ht1(h6 – h7s) + ht2(h8 – h9s)
m
where ht1 and ht2 denote the isentropic efficiencies of turbines 1 and 2,
respectively.
►Total compressor work:
W c
= (h2 – h1) + (h4 – h3) = (h2s – h1)/hc1 + (h4s – h3)/hc2
m
where hc1 and hc2 denote the isentropic efficiencies of compressors 1
and 2, respectively.
►Applying mass and energy rate
balances at steady state, we
obtain the following expressions,
each per unit of mass flowing:
►Total heat added:
Q in
= (h6 – h5) + (h8 – h7)
m
►In this application, the regenerator effectiveness is:
hreg = (h5 – h4)/(h9 – h4)
►For cooling to the surroundings, the temperature at the
exit of the intercooler, T3, cannot be less than the
temperature of the air entering the compressor from the
surroundings: T3 ≥ T1.
Gas Turbine-Based Combined Cycle
►The exhaust temperature of the simple gas turbine
is typically well above the ambient temperature, and
thus the hot gas exiting the turbine has significant
thermodynamic utility (exergy) that can be used cost-
effectively.
►Ways to utilize this potential include:
►The regenerative cycle previously considered.
►A combined cycle – namely, a cycle that
couples two power cycles such that the energy
discharged by heat transfer from the higher-
temperature cycle is used as a heat input for the
lower-temperature cycle.
Combined Gas Turbine-Vapor Power Cycle (1 of 2)
►Illustrated here is a combined cycle
involving gas and vapor power cycles:
►The cycles are combined using an
interconnecting heat-recovery
steam generator that serves as the
boiler for the vapor power cycle.
►The combined cycle has the gas
turbine’s high average temperature of
heat addition and the vapor power
cycle’s low average temperature of
heat rejection.
►Thermal efficiency is greater than
either cycle would have individually.
►Increasingly, combined gas turbine-vapor power plants are
being used world-wide for electric power generation.
Combined Gas Turbine-Vapor Power Cycle (2 of 2)
►The net power developed by the
combined cycle is the sum of the net
power developed by each cycle.
►The thermal efficiency of the
combined cycle is the net power
output divided by the rate of heat
addition.
(Eq. 9.28)
►For an adiabatic heat recovery steam

generator, mass and energy rate
balances reduce to give the following relationship involving the
mass flow rates of the two cycles:
(Eq. 9.29)
Combined-cycle District Heating
►Shown here is a combined gas turbine-vapor power cycle
applied for district heating. District heating plants are
located within communities to deliver steam or hot water
together with electricity for domestic,
commercial, and industrial use.
►Alternatively, steam exiting
the turbine may be sent
directly to the community
while its condensate returns
to the pump, thereby
eliminating the condenser.
Gas Turbines for Aircraft Propulsion (1 of 8)
►Because of their favorable power-to-weight ratio, gas

turbines are well suited for aircraft propulsion. The
turbojet engine is commonly used for this purpose.
►The figure provides the schematic of a turbojet engine.
Va V5
►The increase in velocity from diffuser inlet, Va, to nozzle
exit, V5, gives rise to the thrust developed by the engine
in accord with Newton’s second law of motion (Eq. 9.31).
►In harmony with air-standard analysis, we assume air
modeled as an ideal gas flows through the engine shown
in the schematic and the temperature rise that would be
obtained with combustion is achieved by heat transfer
from an external source.
Va V5
►If the air flows through the components of the turbojet engine
without irreversibilities and stray heat transfer, air undergoes
the five processes shown on the T-s diagram:
►Process a-1: Air at velocity Va enters the diffuser and
decelerates isentropically, while experiencing an increase in
pressure.
►Process 1-2: The air experiences a further increase in
pressure isentropically, owing to work done by the compressor.
Va V5
►Process 2-3: The temperature of the air increases at constant
pressure as it receives a heat transfer from an external source.
expands isentropically through the turbine, driving the
compressor.
Va V5
►Process 4-5: The air continues to expand isentropically
through the nozzle, achieving a velocity, V5, at the engine exit
much greater than the velocity, Va, at the engine inlet, and
thereby developing thrust.
Va V5
Review: Nozzle and Diffuser Modeling
►The one-inlet, one-exit energy rate balance at
steady state reads:
 (V 2
 V 2
) 
0  Q cv  W cv  m (hi  he )  i e
 g ( zi  z e )
 2 
►For a control volume enclosing a nozzle or diffuser,

► Wcv  0.
►If the change in potential energy from inlet to exit is
negligible, g(zi – ze) drops out.
►If the heat transfer with surroundings is negligible,
Q cv drops out.
 Vi2  Ve2 
0  (hi  he )   
 2 
 
►The energy rate balance applicable to the diffuser
takes the form  V2  V2 
0  (hi  he )   i e 
 2 
 
►For the diffuser, i = a and e = 1. Then,
ha h1
Va V1 ≈ 0
 Va2  V12 
0  (ha  h1 )   
 2 
 
a
1
►Since exit velocity is negligible, the energy rate

balance reduces to
Va2
h1  ha 
2
►The energy rate balance applicable to the nozzle
takes the form  V2  V2 
0  (hi  he )   i e 
 2 
 
►For the nozzle, i = 4 and e = 5. Then,

h4 h5
V4 ≈ 0 V5  V42  V52 
0  (h4  h5 )   
 2 
 
5
4
►Since inlet velocity is negligible, the energy rate

balance reduces to 2
V5
h4  h5   V5  2(h4  h5 )
2
►Since the final expressions obtained for the

diffuser and nozzle are deduced from mass and
energy rate balances, they apply equally when
irreversibilities are present and in the absence of
irreversibilities.

Brayton Cycle

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Chapter 9

Gas Power Systems

Compressor Heat rejection

►The back work ratio is

Note: A relatively large portion of the work developed by the

Since P3 = P2 and P4 = P1, we see that

Since process 1-2 is isentropic,

W net W t Wc irreversiblities increase

work developed in an isentropic

►Isentropic compressor efficiency, introduced in Sec.

work input for an isentropic process from

work input for the actual process from compressor

►The exhaust gas temperature of a simple gas turbine is

What happens to the net work when a regenerator is added?

What happens to the heat supplied when a regenerator is added?

T-s Diagram for Gas Turbine with Regeneration

Cycle type Actual Actual Actual Ideal Ideal Ideal

regen 0.00 0.65 1.00 0.00 0.65 1.00

hcomp 0.75 0.75 0.75 1.00 1.00 1.00

hturb 0.86 0.86 0.86 1.00 1.00 1.00

qin kJ/kg 578.3 504.4 464.6 659.9 582.2 540.2

wcomp kJ/kg 326.2 326.2 326.2 244.6 244.6 244.6

wturb kJ/kg 464.6 464.6 464.6 540.2 540.2 540.2

wcomp/wturb 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.453 0.453 0.453

hth 24.0% 27.5% 29.8% 44.8% 50.8% 54.7%

The isentropic temperature at compressor exit is

To find T5, we apply the regenerator effectiveness.

The net work done by the cycle is

wnet  wturb  wcomp

Cycle with reheat

To determine the intermediate pressure at which intercooling should take place to

The total work supplied to the compressor becomes

►For an adiabatic heat recovery steam

►Because of their favorable power-to-weight ratio, gas

►For a control volume enclosing a nozzle or diffuser,

►Since exit velocity is negligible, the energy rate

►For the nozzle, i = 4 and e = 5. Then,

►Since inlet velocity is negligible, the energy rate

►Since the final expressions obtained for the

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