Heat and Mass Transfer

ME-330

 Internal Forced Convection Heat Transfer

 2.3.1 Internal Forced Convection
The terms pipe, duct, and tube are usually
used interchangeably for flow sections.
Flow sections of circular cross section are
referred to as pipes (when the fluid is a
liquid).
Flow sections of non-circular cross section as
ducts (when the fluid is a gas).
Small diameter pipes are usually referred to
as tubes
2.3.1 Cont.
Q: Why most fluids, especially liquids, are transported
in circular pipes?
 This is because pipes with a circular cross section
can withstand large pressure differences between
the inside and the outside without undergoing any
distortion.
 While Noncircular pipes are usually used in applications
such as the heating and cooling systems of buildings
where the pressure difference is relatively small and the
manufacturing and installation costs are lower
 2.3.2 Average Velocity
In external flow, the free-stream velocity
served as a convenient reference
velocity for use in the evaluation of the
Reynolds number and the friction
coefficient.
In internal flow, he fluid velocity in a
pipe changes from zero at the wall
because of the no-slip condition to a
maximum at the pipe center.
It is convenient to work with an average
velocity Vavg, which remains constant in
incompressible flow when the cross-
sectional area of the pipe is constant.
2.3.2 Cont.
 The value of the mean velocity 𝑉𝑚 in a tube is
determined from the requirement that the conservation of
mass principle be satisfied

 Mean velocity for incompressible flow in a circular tube

of radius R

2.3.2 Cont.
 The average velocity in heating and cooling applications
may change somewhat because of changes in density
with temperature. But, in practice, we evaluate the
fluid properties at some average temperature and
treat them as constants.
 Friction between the fluid layers in a tube may cause
a slight rise in fluid temperature as a result of
mechanical energy being converted to thermal
energy. But this frictional heating is too small to warrant
any consideration in calculations, and thus is
disregarded.
2.3.3 Average Temperature
 When a fluid is heated or cooled as it flows through
a tube, the temperature of the fluid at any cross
section changes from Ts at the surface of the wall to
some maximum (or minimum in the case of heating)
at the tube center.
 In fluid flow it is convenient to work with an average or
mean temperature Tm that remains uniform at a cross
section.
 Unlike the mean velocity, the mean temperature Tm will
change in the flow direction whenever the fluid is heated
or cooled.
2.3.3 Cont.
 The value of the mean temperature Tm is determined
from the requirement that the conservation of energy
principle be satisfied.
 Energy transported by the fluid through a cross section
in actual flow must be equal to the
energy that would be transported through the same
cross section if the fluid were at a constant temperature
Tm.
 2.3.4 Laminar and Turbulent Flow
In Tubes
Flow in a tube can be laminar or turbulent, depending on the flow
conditions.
Fluid flow is streamlined and thus laminar at low velocities, but turns
turbulent as the velocity is increased beyond a critical value.
Transition from laminar to turbulent flow does not occur suddenly; rather,
it occurs over some range of velocity where the flow fluctuates between
laminar and turbulent flows before it becomes fully turbulent.
For flow in a circular tube, the Reynolds number is defined as

D is the diameter of the tube, and v=/ is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid
2.3.4 Cont.
 Most pipe flows encountered in practice are turbulent.
 Laminar flow is encountered when highly viscous fluids
such as oils flow in small diameter tubes or narrow
passages.
 Transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends on
the Reynolds number as well as the degree of
disturbance of the flow by surface roughness, pipe
vibrations, and the fluctuations in the flow.
 The flow in a pipe is laminar for Re < 2300, fully
turbulent for Re > 10,000, and transitional in between.
2.3.4.1 Hydraulic Diameter
For flow through noncircular tubes, the Reynolds
number as well as the Nusselt number, and the
friction factor are based on the hydraulic diameter Dh
2.3.5 Entrance Region
i. Development of velocity Boundary Layer
 Consider a fluid entering a circular tube at a uniform
velocity.
 Due to no-slip condition, the fluid particles in the layer in
contact with the surface of the tube will come to a
complete stop.
 This layer will also cause the fluid particles in the
adjacent layers to slow down gradually as a result of
friction.
 To make up for this velocity reduction, the velocity of the
fluid at the midsection of the tube will have to increase to
keep the mass flow rate through the tube constant.
 velocity boundary layer develops along the tube.
 The thickness of this boundary layer increases in the
flow direction until the boundary layer reaches the tube
 2.3.5 Cont.
• Velocity boundary layer (boundary layer): The region of the flow in
which the effects of the viscous shearing forces caused by fluid
viscosity are felt.
• The boundary surface divides the flow in a pipe into following
regions:
• Boundary layer region: The viscous effects and the velocity
changes are significant.
• Irrotational (core) flow region: The frictional effects are negligible
and the velocity remains essentially constant in the radial direction.
• Hydrodynamic entrance region: The region from the pipe inlet to
the point at which the velocity profile is fully developed.
• Hydrodynamic entry length Lh: The length of this region.
• Hydrodynamically fully developed region: The region beyond the
entrance region in which the velocity profile is fully developed and
remains unchanged.
2.3.5 Entrance Region
ii. Development of temperature Boundary Layer
 Consider a fluid at a uniform temperature entering a
circular tube whose surface is maintained at a
different temperature.
 This time, the fluid particles in the layer in contact
with the surface of the tube will assume the
surface temperature.
 This will initiate convection heat transfer in the tube
and the development of a thermal boundary layer
along the tube.
 The thickness of this boundary layer also increases
in the flow direction until the boundary layer reaches
the tube center and thus fills the entire tube.
• Thermal entrance region: The region of flow over which the
thermal boundary layer develops and reaches the tube
center.
• Thermal entry length: The length of this region.
• Thermally developing flow: Flow in the thermal entrance
region. This is the region where the temperature profile
develops.
• Thermally fully developed region: The region beyond the
thermal entrance region in which the dimensionless
temperature profile remains unchanged.
• The region beyond the thermal entrance region in which the
dimensionless temperature profile expressed as (Ts-T)/(Ts-Tm) remains
unchanged is called the thermally fully developed region.
• The region in which the flow is both hydrodynamically and thermally
developed and thus both the velocity and dimensionless temperature
profiles remain unchanged is called fully developed flow.
Conclusion: in the thermally fully developed region of a tube, the local
convection coefficient is constant (does not vary with x). Therefore, both
the friction and convection coefficients remain constant in the fully
developed region of a tube.
 2.3.6 Entry Length
Laminar flow, the hydrodynamic and thermal entry lengths are

For Re = 20, the hydrodynamic entry length is about the size of the
diameter, but increases linearly with the velocity.
In the limiting case of Re = 2300, the hydrodynamic entry length is 115D

Turbulent flow
2.3.6 Cont.
• The Nusselt numbers and thus h values are much higher
in the entrance region.
• The Nusselt number reaches a constant value at a
distance of less than 10 diameters, and thus the flow can
be assumed to be fully developed for x > 10D.
• The Nusselt numbers for the uniform surface
temperature and uniform surface heat flux conditions are
identical in the fully developed regions, and nearly
identical in the entrance regions.
 2.3.7 General Thermal Analysis
The thermal conditions at the surface can be approximated to be
• constant surface temperature (Ts= const)
• constant surface heat flux (qs = const)
The constant surface temperature condition is realized
when a phase change process such as boiling or
condensation occurs at the outer surface of a tube.
The constant surface heat flux condition is realized when
the tube is subjected to radiation or electric resistance
heating uniformly from all directions.
We may have either Ts = constant or qs = constant at the
surface of a tube, but not both.
Rate of heat transfer

Surface heat flux

hx the local heat transfer coefficient

The heat transfer to a fluid flowing in

a tube is equal to the increase in the
energy of the fluid.
ii. Constant Surface Heat Flux (qs = constant)
Rate of heat transfer:

Mean fluid temperature at the tube exit:

Surface temperature:

Variation of the tube surface and

the mean fluid temperatures along
the tube for the case of constant
surface heat flux.
• The mean fluid temperature increases linearly in the flow
direction in the case of constant surface heat flux, since the
surface area increases linearly in the flow direction (As is
equal to the perimeter, which is constant, times the tube
length).
• In the fully developed region, the surface temperature Ts
will also increase linearly in the flow direction since h is
constant and thus Ts -Tm =constant.
ii. Constant Surface Temperature (Ts = constant)

From Newton’s law of cooling, the rate of heat transfer to or from a fluid
flowing in a tube can be expressed as

Two suitable ways of expressing Tavg

• Arithmetic mean temperature difference
• logarithmic mean temperature difference
 arithmetic mean temperature difference ΔTam is simply the average of the temperature
differences between the surface and the fluid at the inlet and the exit of the tube.

Bulk mean fluid temperature: Tb = (Ti + Te)/2

By using arithmetic mean temperature difference, we assume that the mean fluid
temperature varies linearly along the tube, which is hardly ever the case when
Ts = constant.
This simple approximation often gives acceptable results, but not always.
Therefore, we need a better way to evaluate Tavg.
Calculation of arithmetic mean temperature difference
Consider the heating of a fluid in a tube of constant cross section
whose inner surface is maintained at a constant temperature of Ts.
Mean temperature of the fluid Tm will increase in the flow direction
as a result of heat transfer.
The energy balance on a differential control volume
Integrating from x = 0 (tube
inlet, Tm = Ti) to x = L (tube
exit, Tm = Te)

The variation of the mean fluid

temperature along the tube for the
case of constant temperature.
the temperature difference between the
fluid and the surface decays
exponentially in the flow direction, and
the rate of decay depends on the
magnitude of the exponent
2.3.7 Number of Transfer Unit
 The temperature difference between the fluid and the
surface decays exponentially in the flow direction, and
the rate of decay depends on the magnitude of the
exponent
 Number of transfer units. A measure of the
effectiveness of the heat transfer systems.
 The dimensionless parameter is called the NTU.
 For NUT>5, the exit temperature of the fluid becomes almost equal
to the surface temperature, Te ≈ Ts
 The fluid temperature can approach the surface temperature but
cannot cross it
 NTU of about 5 indicates that the limit is reached for heat transfer,
and the heat transfer will not increase no matter how much we
extend the length of the tube.
2.3.7 Cont.
 A small value of NTU, on the other hand, indicates more
opportunities for heat transfer, and the heat transfer will
continue increasing as the tube length is increased.
 A large NTU and thus a large heat transfer surface area
(which means a large tube) may be desirable from a
heat transfer point of view, but it may be unacceptable
from an economic point of view.
2.3.7 Cont.
 The logarithmic mean temperature difference Tln is
obtained by tracing the actual temperature profile of the
fluid along the tube, and is an exact representation of the
average temperature difference between the fluid and
the surface. It truly reflects the exponential decay of the
local temperature difference.
 Problem 8-22
Cooling water available at 10°C is used to condense steam at 30°C in
the condenser of a power plant at a rate of 0.15 kg/s by circulating the
cooling water through a bank of 5-m-long 1.2-cm-internal-diameter thin
copper tubes.

Water enters the tubes at a mean velocity of 4 m/s, and leaves at a

temperature of 24°C. The tubes are nearly isothermal at 30°C.

Determine the average heat transfer coefficient between the water and
the tubes, and the number of tubes needed to achieve the indicated
heat transfer rate in the condenser. Steam, 30C
Steam is condensed by cooling
water flowing inside copper tubes. 24C
Water D = 1.2 cm
The average heat transfer
coefficient and the number of 10C
4 m/s L=5m
tubes needed are to be
determined.
.
The properties of water at the average temperature of (10+24)/2=17C are
(Table A-9)

r = 998.7 kg/ m 3
C p = 4184.5 J / kg.°C

heat of vaporization of steam at 30C is

h fg = 2431 kJ / kg
The mass flow rate of water and the surface area
Steam, 30C
are
24C
Water D = 1.2 cm

æp D 2 ö 10C
÷
m&= r Ac Vm = r ççç ÷V
÷ m
4 m/s L=5m

çè 4 ÷ø
2
3 p (0.012 m)
= (998.7 kg/ m ) (4 m/ s)= 0.4518 kg/ s
4

The rate of heat transfer for one tube is

Q&= mC& p (T e - T i ) = (0.4518 kg/ s)(4184.5 J / kg.°C)(24 - 10°C)

= 26, 468 W= 26.5 kW
 Also Q&= hAs D T ln

The logarithmic mean temperature difference and the surface area are
Te - T i 24 - 10
D T ln = = = 11.63°C
æT - T ö æ30 - 24 ö
ln çç s e÷
÷ ln çç ÷
÷
÷
ççèT - T ø
÷ è30 - 10 ÷
ç ø
s i
As = p DL = p (0.012 m)(5 m)= 0.1885 m 2

The average heat transfer coefficient is determined from

Q&
Q&= hAs D T ln ¾ ¾® h =
As D T ln
26, 468 W æ 1 kW ö
= çç ÷
÷ = 12.1 kW / m 2
.°C
ç ÷
(0.1885 m )(11.63°C) è1000 W ø
2
The total rate of heat transfer is determined from

Q&total = m&cond h fg = (0.15 kg/ s)(2431 kJ / kg) = 364.65 kW

Number of Tubes can be Calculated as:

Q&total 364, 650 W

N tube = = = 13.8 » 14
Q& 26, 468 W
 Problem 8-24
Combustion gases passing through a 3-cm-internal-diameter circular
tube are used to vaporize waste water at atmospheric pressure.

Hot gases enter the tube at 115 kPa and 250°C at a mean velocity of 5
m/s, and leave at 150°C.

If the average heat transfer coefficient is 120 W/m2°C and the inner
surface temperature of the tube is 110°C,

Ts =110C

Determine 150C
Exh. gases D =3 cm
(a) the tube length and 250C
(b) the rate of evaporation of 5 m/s
L
water.
The properties of air at the average temperature of

(250+150)/2=200C

C p = 1.023 kJ / kg.°C
R = 0.287 kJ / kg.K

Heat of vaporization of water at 1 atm or 100C

h fg » 2257 kJ/ kg
The density of air at the inlet and the mass flow rate of exhaust
gases are
P 115 kP a
r = = = 0.7662 kg/ m 3
RT (0.287 kJ / kg.K)(250 + 273 K)

æp D 2 ö
÷
m&= r Ac Vm = r ççç ÷
÷ Vm
çè 4 ÷
ø
2
3 p (0.03 m)
= (0.7662 kg/ m ) (5 m/ s)= 0.002708 kg/ s
4
The rate of heat transfer is

Q&= mC
& p (T i - Te ) = (0.002708 kg/ s)(1023 J / kg.°C)(250 - 150°C)
= 276.9 W

The logarithmic mean temperature difference and the surface area are

Te - T i 150 - 250
D T ln = = = 79.82°C
æT - T ö æ110 - 150 ö
ln çç s e÷÷ ln çç ÷
÷
ççèT - T ø÷
÷ ç
è110 - 250 ÷
ø
s i

Q& 276.9 W
Q&= hAs D T ln ¾ ¾® As = = = 0.05782 m 2
h D T ln (60 W/ m 2. °C)(79.82°C)

Then the tube length becomes

As 0.05782 m 2
As = p DL ¾ ¾® L = = = 0.6135 m = 61.4 cm
pD p (0.03 m)
The rate of evaporation of water is determined from

Q&= m&evaph fg
Q& (0.2769 kW)
m&evap = =
h fg (2257 kJ / kg)
= 0.0001227 kg/ s= 0.442 kg/ s
2.3.8 Laminar Flow in Tubes
 Flow in tubes is laminar for Re 2300
 The flow is fully developed if the tube is sufficiently long
(relative to the entry length) so that the entrance effects
are negligible.
 In fully developed laminar flow, each fluid particle moves
at a constant axial velocity along a streamline and the
velocity profile V(r) remains unchanged in the flow
direction.
 There is no motion in the radial direction, and thus the
velocity component v in the direction normal to flow is
everywhere zero.
 There is no acceleration since the flow is steady.
 2.3.8.1 Pressure Drop
A quantity of interest in the analysis of pipe flow is the pressure drop P
since it is directly related to the power requirements of the fan or pump to
maintain flow.

The relation for pressure drop is one of the

most general relations in fluid mechanics, and
it is valid for laminar or turbulent flows,
circular or noncircular pipes, and smooth or
rough surfaces.

where the dimensionless quantity f is the friction factor (also called the Darcy
friction factor
Pumping power
2.3.8.2 Temperature Profile and the Nusselt
Number
 Constant Surface Heat Flux

 Constant Surface Temperature

Laminar Flow in Noncircular Tubes
2.3.9 Turbulent Flow in Tube
 Flow in smooth tubes is fully turbulent for Re
10,000.
 Turbulent flow is commonly utilized in practice because
of the higher heat transfer coefficients associated with it.
 Most correlations for the friction and heat transfer
coefficients in turbulent flow are based on experimental
studies because of the difficulty in dealing with turbulent
flow theoretically.
 2.3.9 Cont.
For smooth tubes, the friction factor in turbulent flow can be determined First
Petukhov equation

Chilton–Colburn analogy

For fully developed turbulent flow in smooth tubes

Dittus–Boelter equation
 Example-8.5
Water is to be heated from 15°C to 65°C as it flows through a 3-cm-internal-
diameter 5-m-long tube. The tube is equipped with an electric resistance heater
that provides uniform heating throughout the surface of the tube.

The outer surface of the heater is well insulated, so that in steady operation all
the heat generated in the heater is transferred to the water in the tube.

If the system is to provide hot water at a rate of 10 L/min, determine the power
rating of the resistance heater. Also, estimate the inner surface temperature of
the pipe at the exit
 Example-8.5
The properties of water at the bulk mean temperature of

Tb=(Ti +Te)/2 =(15 + 65)/2 = 40°C

r = 992.1 kg/ m 3 k = 0.631 W/ m.°C

u = 0.658 ´ 10-6 m 2 / s P r = 4.32
Cp = 4.18 kJ / kg - K

The cross sectional and heat transfer surface areas are

 Example-8.5
The volume flow rate of water is given as 𝑉ሶ =10 L/min =0.01 m3/min.

Then the mass flow rate becomes

& 3 3
m&= rV = 992.1 kg / m * 0.01m / min
= 9.92kg / min = 0.1654 kg / s
To heat the water at this mass flow rate from 15°C to 65°C, heat must be
supplied to the water at a rate of

All of this energy must come from the resistance heater. Therefore, the power
rating of the heater must be 34.6 kW
 Example-8.5
The surface temperature Ts of the tube at any location can be determined
from

where his the heat transfer coefficient and Tm is the mean temperature of the
fluid at that location.

The surface heat flux is constant in this case, and its value can be determined
from
 Example-8.5
To determine the heat transfer coefficient, we first need to find the mean ve-
locity of water and the Reynolds number:

which is greater than 10,000. Therefore, the flow is turbulent and the entry
length is roughly
Lh = Lt = 10D = 10 * 0.03 = 0.3m

which is much shorter than the total length of the pipe. Therefore, we can as-
sume fully developed turbulent flow in the entire pipe and determine the Nus-
selt number from
hDh
Nu = = 0.023 Re0.8 P r 0.4 = 0.023(10760)0.8 (4.34)0.4 = 69.5
k
 Example-8.5
k 0.631 W/ m.°C
h= Nu = (69.5) = 1462 W/ m 2.°C
Dh 0.03 m

and the surface temperature of the pipe at the exit becomes

 EXAMPLE 8–6 Heat Loss from the Ducts of a Heating System
Hot air at atmospheric pressure and 80°C enters an 8–m-long un insulated
square duct of cross section 0.2 m x 0.2 m that passes through the attic of a
house at a rate of 0.15 m 3 /s .

The duct is observed to be nearly isothermal at 60°C.

Determine the exit temperature of the air and the rate of heat loss from the duct
to the attic space.

Assumptions

i. Steady operating conditions exist.

ii. Inner surfaces of the duct are
smooth.
iii. Air is an ideal gas.
 EXAMPLE 8–6 Heat Loss from the Ducts of a Heating System
The exit temperature of the air in the duct is unknown, and thus we cannot determine
the bulk mean temperature of air, which is the temperature at which the properties are to
be determined.

The temperature of air at the inlet is 80°C and it is expected this temperature to drop
somewhat as a result of heat loss through the duct whose surface is at 60°C.

At 80°C and 1 atm we read

which is greater than 10,000.

Therefore, the flow is turbulent and the

entry lengths in this case are roughly
 EXAMPLE 8–6 Heat Loss from the Ducts of a Heating System

which is much shorter than the total length of the duct.

Therefore, we can assume fully developed turbulent flow in the entire duct and
determine the Nusselt number from
EXAMPLE 8–6 Heat Loss from the Ducts of a Heating System

The exit temperature of air

T e = T s - (T s - T i ) exp(- hAs / mC
& p)
 EXAMPLE 8–6 Heat Loss from the Ducts of a Heating System

For the calculation heat lost by air we can use

Q&= hA D T s ln

Te - T i
D T ln = = - 15.2°C
æT - T ö
ln çç s e÷
÷
ççèT - T ÷
÷
ø
s i

Q&= hAs D T ln = 13.5 * 6.4 * (- 15.2) = - 1313W

Therefore, air will lose heat at a rate of 1313 W as it flows through the duct in
the attic.

The average fluid temperature is (80 +71.3)/2 =75.7°C, which is sufficiently

close to 80°C at which we evaluated the properties of air.

Therefore, it is not necessary to re-evaluate the properties at this temperature

and to repeat the calculations.
 Problem 8-40
Water is to be heated from 10°C to 80°C as it flows through a 2-cm-internal-
diameter, 7-m-long tube.

The tube is equipped with an electric resistance heater, which provides uniform
heating throughout the surface of the tube

The outer surface of the heater is well insulated, so that in steady operation all
the heat generated in the heater is transferred to the water in the tube.

If the system is to provide hot water at a rate (Resistance heater)

of 8 L/min, determine the power rating of Water
D = 2 cm
the resistance heater. 10C
80C
3 m/s
Also, estimate the inner surface temperature L
of the pipe at the exit.
 Problem 8-40
The properties of water at the average temperature of (80+10) / 2 = 45C are
(Table A-9)
r = 990.1 kg/ m 3 k = 0.637 W/ m.°C
u = m / r = 0.602 ´ 10-6 m 2 / s
(Resistance heater)
C p = 4180 J / kg.°C P r = 3.91 Water
D = 2 cm
10C
80C
3 m/s
The power rating of the resistance heater
L
m&= rV&= (990.1 kg/ m 3 )(0.008 m 3 / min)
= 7.921 kg/ min = 0.132 kg/ s

Q&= mC
& p (T e - T i ) = (0.132 kg/ s)(4180 J / kg.°C)(80 - 10)°C
= 38, 627 W
 Problem 8-40
The velocity of water and the Reynolds number are

V& (8 ´ 10- 3 / 60) m 3 / s (Resistance heater)

Vm = = = 0.4244 m/ s
Ac 2 Water
p (0.02 m) / 4 10C
D = 2 cm
80C
3 m/s

L
Vm Dh (0.4244 m/ s)(0.02 m)
Re = = = 14,101
- 6 2
u 0.602 ´ 10 m / s
which is greater than 10,000. Therefore, the flow is turbulent and the entry
lengths in this case are roughly

Lh » Lt » 10D = 10(0.02 m) = 0.20 m

which is much shorter than the total length of the duct. Therefore, we can assume fully
developed turbulent flow in the entire duct, and determine the Nusselt number from
hDh
Nu = = 0.023 Re0.8 P r 0.4 = 0.023(14,101)0.8 (3.91)0.4 = 82.79
k
 Problem 8-40
k 0.637 W/ m.°C
h= Nu = (82.79) = 2637 W/ m 2.°C
Dh 0.02 m

Then the inner surface temperature of the pipe at the exit becomes

Q&= hAs (T s ,e - T e )
38, 627 W = (2637 W/ m 2.°C)[p (0.02 m)(7 m)](T s - 80)°C
T s ,e = 113.3°C
(Resistance heater)
Water D = 2 cm
10C
80C
3 m/s