Wolkite University

Department of Information Systems

Wireless Communications And mobile computing

Chapter Five

Cellular Networks
Wendosen Z.(MSc in Computer Networking)& CCNA instructor
1
 Outline
• Fundamentals of cellular network
• GSM
Cell 1
A Cellular Network

Mobile Public
Switching Switched
Center Telephone
Cell 2 (MSC) Network
(PSTN)
And
internet
HLR VLR

Mobile User Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

Cordless connection HLR = Home Location Register

Wired connection VLR = Visitor Location Register

 Introduction to cellular networks
• Cell covers specific geographical region
• BTS(Base transceiver station)
– Create cell (similar to Access point)
• Mobile station(MS)
– Attached to network through BTS
• Mobile switching center (MSC)
– Connect cell to wide area net
– Manages call setups
– handles mobility (HLR,VLR)
• Cellular concepts
 0G Wireless (old days)
• Mobile radio telephones were used for military
communications in early 20th century
• Car-based telephones first introduced in mid 1940s
– Single large transmitter on top of a tall building
– Single channel used for sending and receiving
– To talk, user pushed a button, enabled transmission and
disabled reception. Became known as “push-to-talk” .
– CB-radio, taxis, police cars use this technology
• IMTS (Improved Mobile Telephone System) introduced in
1960s
– Used two channels (one for sending, one for receiving)
– No need for push-to-talk
– Used 23 channels from 150 MHz to 450 MHz
 First-Generation Cellular
• Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS) invented at
Bell Labs and first installed in 1982
• Key ideas:
– Exclusively analog
– Geographical area divided into cells (typically 10-25km)
– Cells are small: Frequency reuse exploited in nearby (not
adjacent) cells
– As compared to IMTS, could use 5 to 10 times more users in
same area by using frequency re-use (divide area into cells)
– Smaller cells also required less powerful, cheaper, smaller
devices
 Cellular Network Organization
• Cell design (around 5km radius)
– Served by base station consisting of transmitter,
receiver, and control unit
– Base station (BS) antenna is placed in high
places ( high rise buildings) -
– Different frequencies assigned to each cell
– Cells set up such that antennas of all neighbors are
equidistant (hexagonal pattern)
• In North America, two 25-MHz bands allocated to
AMPS
– One for transmission from base to mobile unit
– One for transmission from mobile unit to base
 segmentation of the area into cells

possible radio coverage of the cell

(omni-directional)

idealized shape of the cell

cell

• use of several carrier frequencies

• not the same frequency in adjoining cells
• cell sizes vary from some 100 m up to 35 km depending on user density,
geography, transceiver power etc.
• hexagonal shape of cells is idealized (cells overlap, shapes depend on
geography)
• if a mobile user changes cells handover of the connection to the neighbor cell
 Cell Design
E
F D
E
D A
F
G C
A
G C B

B E
F D

A
G C

B
•Cells grouped into a cluster of seven
•Letters indicate frequency use
•For each frequency, a buffer of two cells is used before reuse
•To add more users, smaller cells (microcells) are used
•Frequencies may not need to be different in CDMA (soft handoff)
How to accommodate many users?:- Approaches to
Increase Capacity
• Adding/reassigning channels - some channels
are not used for traffic
• Frequency borrowing – frequencies are taken
from adjacent cells by congested cells.
– High traffic cells borrows channel from low traffic
cells
• Cell splitting – cells in areas of high usage can
be split into smaller cells
– Decrease the transmission power

Copyright: A. Umar
 Cellular hierarchy
• Femto cell- smallest unit of the hierarchy
– Cover only few meters where devices are in the
physical range of the user. e.g. WPANs
• Pico cells: covers few tens of meters.
– E.g. WLAN
• Micro cells :covers hundreds of meters
• Macro cells: several kilometer coverage
• Mega cells: national wide coverage.
– E.g Satellites
 Global System for Mobile Communication
(GSM) Overview
• Formerly: Groupe Spéciale Mobile (founded 1982)
• Now: Global System for Mobile Communication
• Pan-European standard (ETSI, European
Telecommunications Standardization Institute)
• Goal : was to provide a mobile phone system that allows
users to roam throughout Europe and provides voice
services compatible to ISDN and other PSTN systems.
• Today many providers all over the world use GSM
(219 countries in Asia, Africa, Europe, Australia, America)
– more than 5 billion subscribers in more than 800 networks
– more than 80% of all digital mobile phones use GSM
• Today more people use mobile phone system than the
fixed telephones .
 GSM Technologies
• A 2G cellular network (a digital network for voice
communication)
• Circuit switching for voice (mainly)/data (limited)
transmission rate
– Connection-oriented service: establish a communication path
(channel) for point-to-point communication
• Multiplexing
– Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) plus Time division
multiplexing (TDM) (adding to Space division multiplexing,
SDM)
– Uses 124 pair of channels per cell, each channel can support 8
users through TDM (992 users max actually 500 users)
– Some channels are used for control signals, etc
 GSM - TDMA/FDMA 935-960 MHz
124 channels (200 kHz)
downlink

890-915 MHz
124 channels (200 kHz)
uplink
higher GSM frame structures
time

GSM TDMA frame

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
4.615 ms

GSM time-slot (normal burst)

guard guard
space tail user data S Training S user data tail space
3 bits 57 bits 1 26 bits 1 57 bits 3
546.5 µs
577 µs
 GSM Technologies..

• Mobility management
– Two-tier architecture: HLR and VLR
– Location area for location update together with
paging for searching
• Services
– Mainly for voice communication
– Data communication is very limited (i.e., 9.6kbit/s)
and supporting SMS
 Performance Characteristics of GSM
Comparing with 1G cellular network
• Communication
– Mobile communication for voice and data services
• Total mobility
– International access, chip-card enables use of access points of different
providers (roaming services)
• Worldwide connectivity
– One number, the network handles localization and interoperability
• High capacity
– Better frequency efficiency (frequency reuses), smaller cells, more customers
per cell
• High transmission quality
– High audio quality and reliability for wireless, uninterrupted phone calls at
higher speeds (e.g., from cars, trains)
• Security functions
– encryption, authentication via chip-card and PIN
 GSM: Mobile Services
• GSM offers
–several types of connections
• voice connections, data connections, short
message service
–voice communication services
• Basic telephony
• Emergency number
– common number throughout Europe (112); mandatory
for all service providers; free of charge; connection with
the highest priority (preemption of other connections
possible)
• Voice mailbox
 GSM: Mobile Services…
–Non-Voice-services
• group 3 fax
• electronic mail ( Message Handling System,
implemented in the fixed network)
• Short Message Service (SMS)
alphanumeric data transmission to/from the
mobile terminal (160 characters) using the
signaling channel, thus allowing simultaneous
use of basic services and SMS(almost ignored in
the beginning now the most successful add-on!)
 GSM: Mobile Services….
– Supplementary service :May differ between
different service providers, countries and protocol
versions
• Caller identification: CallerID
• forwarding of caller number:callDiverting
• automatic call-back
• conferencing with up to 7 participants
• locking of the mobile terminal (incoming or outgoing
calls)
 Architecture of the GSM System
• GSM is a PLMN (Public Land Mobile Network)
– Main components
• MS (mobile station)
• BS (base station)
• MSC (mobile switching center)
• LR (location register)
– Subsystems
• RSS (radio subsystem): covers all radio aspects
• NSS (network and switching subsystem): call forwarding, handover,
switching
• OSS (operation subsystem): management of the network
 Components

Mobile
Station

switching Database
center

Base Management
Transceiver
Station
 GSM: overview
OMC, EIR,
AUC
HLR
GMSC
NSS fixed network
with OSS

VLR MSC MSC

VLR

BSC

BSC

RSS
GSM: system architecture
radio network and fixed
subsystem switching subsystem partner networks

MS MS
ISDN
PSTN
Um MSC

BTS Abis
BSC EIR
BTS

SS7
HLR

BTS VLR
BSC ISDN
BTS MSC PSTN
A
BSS IWF
PSPDN
CSPDN
System architecture: radio subsystem
radio network and switching
subsystem subsystem • Components
MS MS – MS (Mobile Station)
– BSS (Base Station Subsystem):
consisting of
Um • BTS (Base Transceiver Station):
sender and receiver
Abis
BTS • BSC (Base Station Controller):
BSC MSC controlling several transceivers
BTS

• Interfaces
– Um : radio interface
– Abis : standardized, open interface
with 16 kbit/s user channels
A
BTS – A: standardized, open interface with
BSC MSC 64 kbit/s user channels
BTS
BSS
 Radio subsystem
• The Radio Subsystem (RSS) comprises the cellular
mobile network up to the switching centers
• Components
– Base Station Subsystem (BSS):
• Base Transceiver Station (BTS):
– radio components including sender, receiver, antenna
– if directed antennas are used one BTS can cover several cells
• Base Station Controller (BSC):
– switching between BTSs, controlling BTSs,
– mapping of radio channels (Um) onto terrestrial channels (A
interface)
• BSS = BSC + sum(BTS)
– Mobile Stations (MS)
• MS=ME(mobile Equipment ) + SIM( subscriber identity module)
 Base Transceiver Station and Base
Station Controller
• Tasks of a BSS are distributed over BSC and BTS
• BTS comprises radio specific functions
• BSC is the switching center for radio channels
Functions BTS BSC
Management of radio channels X
Frequency hopping (FH) X X
Management of terrestrial channels X
Mapping of terrestrial onto radio channels X
Channel coding and decoding X
Rate adaptation X
Encryption and decryption X X
Paging X X
Uplink signal measurements X
Traffic measurement X
Authentication X
Location registry, location update X
Handover management X
 Mobile station
• Terminal for the use of GSM services
• Mobile Equipment (ME)
– represents physical terminals, such as a mobile or PDA.
• Subscribers identity module (SIM)
– Stores all user specific data(Static)
– i.e Card-type, subscribed service, personal identity
number(PIN) ,PIN unblocking key (PUK), International
mobile subscriber identity(IMSI) ,phone book.
• MS=ME + SIM
 System architecture: network and
switching subsystem
network fixed partner
subsystem networks • Components
• MSC (Mobile Services Switching Center):
ISDN • IWF (Interworking Functions)
PSTN • ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
MSC • PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network)
• PSPDN (Packet Switched Public Data Net.)
• CSPDN (Circuit Switched Public Data Net.)
EIR

•Databases
SS7

HLR • HLR (Home Location Register)

• VLR (Visitor Location Register)
• EIR (Equipment Identity Register)
VLR • Protocol
ISDN
• SS7 (signaling system no. 7)
MSC
PSTN
IWF
PSPDN
CSPDN
 Network and switching subsystem
• NSS is the main component of the public mobile network GSM
– Switching, Hand over , mobility management ( localization ),
• Components
– Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC)
• controls all connections via a separated network to/from a mobile
terminal within the domain of the MSC - several BSC can belong to a
MSC
– Databases (important: scalability, high capacity, low delay)
• Home Location Register (HLR)
central master database containing user data, permanent and semi-
permanent data of all subscribers assigned to the HLR (one provider
can have several HLRs)
• Visitor Location Register (VLR)
local database for a subset of user data, including data about all user
currently in the domain of the VLR
 Mobile Services Switching Center
• The MSC (mobile services switching center) plays a
central role in GSM
– switching functions ( b/n BSC)
– Hand over functions for mobility support
– management of network resources
– interworking functions via Gateway MSC (GMSC)
– integration of several databases.
– location registration and forwarding of location
information
– provision of new services (fax, data calls)
– support of short message service (SMS)
– generation and forwarding of accounting and billing
information
GSM: elements and interfaces
radio cell
BSS
MS MS

Um radio cell

RSS BTS MS

BTS

Abis

BSC BSC
A

MSC MSC

NSS signaling
VLR VLR
ISDN, PSTN
HLR GMSC
PDN
IWF
O

OSS
EIR AUC OMC
 Operation subsystem
• enables centralized management and maintenance of all
GSM subsystems
• Components
– Authentication Center (AUC)
• Used to protect user identity and data transmission.
• authentication parameters and Encryption keys are
generated and stored
• May be situated in special protected part of the HLR
– Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
• registers GSM mobile stations devices
• Black list(stolen or locked ), Gray list( malfunctioning MS)
• White list (Valid devices)
– Operation and Maintenance Center (OMC)
• control and monitor radio subsystem and the network
subsystem entities via the O interface .
• Traffic monitoring , status report of the network entities
 Databases recap
Mobile Switching Center (MSC) is at core; consists of
several databases
• Home location register (HLR) database – stores
information about each subscriber that belongs to it
• Visitor location register (VLR) database – maintains
information about subscribers currently physically in
the region
• Authentication center database (AuC) – used for
authentication activities, holds encryption keys
• Equipment identity register database (EIR) – keeps
track of the type of equipment that exists at the
mobile station

Copyright: A. Umar
 GSM frequency bands
Type Channels Uplink [MHz] Downlink [MHz]

GSM 850 128-251 824-849 869-894

GSM 900 0-124, 955- 876-915 921-960

classical 1023 890-915 935-960
extended 124 channels 880-915 925-960
+49 channels
GSM 1800 512-885 1710-1785 1805-1880
GSM 1900 512-810 1850-1910 1930-1990
GSM-R 955-1024, 0- 876-915 921-960
exclusive 124 876-880 921-925
69 channels
- Please note: frequency ranges may vary depending on the country!
- Channels at the lower/upper edge of a frequency band are typically not used
 Example coverage of GSM networks (www.gsmworld.com)
T-Mobile (GSM-900/1800) Germany O2 (GSM-1800) Germany

AT&T (GSM-850/1900) USA Vodacom (GSM-900) South Africa

ETMTN (GSM-900) Ethiopia
 Localization and calling
• To always know where a user currently is , GSM
performs periodic location updates even if the MS
is not in use( as long as it is logged on to the GSM
network ).
• HLR always contains info about the current location
• VLR of the MSC informs the HLR about the location
change.
 Localization…
• To locate the MS several numbers are needed.
– Mobile subscriber international ISDN number (MSISDN)
• Phone number E.g. +251917265317
– country code (CC)……… (+251) Ethiopia
– National Destination code(NDC)…. ( 917 ) Jimma
– Subscriber number (SN)………………..(265317) individual

– International mobile subscriber identity (IMSI)

• Used by the network provider
– Mobile country code (MCC)
– Mobile network code (MNC)-code of network provider
– Mobile subscriber identification number (MSIN)
–
 Localization…
• Temporary mobile subscriber identity (TMSI)
– To hide the IMSI by BSC
– By the VLR
• Mobile station roaming number (MSRN)
– Temporary address to hide the identity and location of a
subscriber by MSC
• Visitor country code (VCC)
• Visitor national destination code(VNDC)
• International mobile Equipment identity (IMEI)
– Unique code to each mobile equipment
– device specific theft protection
– Stored in EIR( Equipment identity register )
– Dial *#06#
 Mobile Terminated Call(MTC)
• 1: calling a GSM subscriber HLR
4
VLR
• 2: forwarding call to GMSC 5
8 9
3 6
• 3: signal call setup to HLR 14 15
calling 7
• 4, 5: request MSRN from VLR station 1
PSTN GMSC MSC
2
• 6: forward responsible 10 10 13 10
MSC to GMSC 16
• 7: forward call to BSS BSS BSS
11 11 11
• current MSC
• 8, 9: get current status of MS 11 12
17
• 10, 11: paging of MS
MS
• 12, 13: MS answers
• 14, 15: security checks
• 16, 17: set up connection
 Mobile Originated Call(MOC)
• 1, 2: connection request
• 3, 4: security check
• 5-8: check resources (free circuit)
• 9-10: set up call VLR

3 4
6 5
PSTN GMSC MSC
7 8
2 9
1
MS BSS
10

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de MC - 2009

 GSM Roaming

• The ability for a cellular customer to automatically

make and receive voice calls, send and receive data, or
access other services when travelling outside the
geographical coverage area of the home network, by
means of using a visited network.
• Roaming Agreements between network operators
required .
– National Roaming(visited network in the same country as
the home network)
– International Roaming( visited network is outside the
home country)
 How Roaming Works
• Subscribe for the roaming service
• roaming agreement is needed b/n operators .
• Phone support the radio frequency
– e.g. 850, 900, 1800 and 1900 MHz
• Switch on your phone in the foreign network.
• Note that when roaming you have to pay both
for calls that you make and receive.
 GSM coverage and network info
ETHIOPIA
• Network Information
• Operator: Ethiopian Telecommunications
Corporation Also known as: ETMTN
– Currently : Ethiotelecom
• Technology: GSM
• Frequency: 900
• Launch Date: APR 1999
• Services
– Short Message Service
Source :www.mobileworldlive .com
 Roaming Partners: ETMTN
• A Afghanistan, Albania, Algeria, Angola, Argentina, Armenia, Australia, Austria,
Azerbaijan, B Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belarus, Belgium, Benin, Bosnia Herzegovina,
Botswana, Brazil, Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, Burundi, C Cameroon, Canada, Chad, China,
Comoros, Congo, Cote D Ivoire, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, D Denmark, Djibouit
E- Eritrea, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Estonia, F Finland, France, G Gabon, Gambia,
Georgia, Germany, Ghana, Greece, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, H Hong Kong, Hungary, I
Iceland India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, Israel, Italy, J Jamaica, Japan, Jordan,
K Kazakhstan, Kenya, Korea, Kuwait, L Latvia, Lebanon, Lesotho, Liberia, Libya,
Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, M Madagascar, Malawi, Malaysia, Mali ,Malta
Mauritius, Mexico, Mongolia, Morocco, Mozambique, N Namibia, Netherlands,
Niger, Nigeria, Norway, O Oman, P Pakistan, Panama, Papua New Guinea,
Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Puerto Rico, Q Qatar, R Romania, Russia, Rwanda,
S Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Serbia, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Slovakia,
Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Swaziland, Sweden, Switzerland,
Syria,T Tanzania, Thailand, Togo, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan,
U Uganda, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, United States, Uruguay,
Uzbekistan, Y Yemen, Z Zambia, Zimbabwe.
 Handover
• Hand off is used to provide continuity of
services while a mobile unit moves from one
cell to another.
• hand off is necessary due to the limited power
of the MS and BTS
• Reason for hand over
– > Low signal strength ( out of cell range )
– > Load balancing (too high in one cell)
 Hand over…
• Hand off parameters (measurements)
– word error indicator( WEI)
• Demodulation error
– Received signal strength indicator (RSSI)
– Quality indicator (QI)
• Quality with respect to interference
• The handoff algorithm will be based on the
value of this parameters .(threshold value )
 Types of handover
• In general there are 3 types of handovers for
cellular network.
– Mobile controlled hand over (MCHO)
• Mobile unit measures the parameters and make handover
decision by itself .
– Network controlled hand over (NCHO)
• Base station measures the parameters and makes the
handover decision.
– Mobile Assisted hand over (MCHO)
• Mobile unit measures the parameters and sends the values
to the network.
• Then the base station(BS) makes the hand over decision.
• Used by GSM.
 4 types of GSM handover

1
2 3 4
MS MS MS MS

BTS BTS BTS BTS

BSC BSC BSC

1. Intracell HO

2. Intercell /Intra-BSC HO MSC MSC

3. Inter-BSC/Intra-MSC HO
4. Inter-MSC HO
 Handover decision

receive level receive level

BTSold BTSnew

HO_MARGIN

MS MS
BTSold BTSnew
 Hand off decisions algorithms
• Using Relative signal strength
– Switch to BTS with better signal
• Using Relative signal strength and threshold
– Switch to BTS with better signal plus threshold
• Common hand of problems
– False handoff(multipath propagation )
– Ping pond effect
 Handover procedure
MS BTSold BSCold MSC BSCnew BTSnew
measurement measurement
report result

HO decision
HO required HO request
resource allocation
ch. activation

HO request ack ch. activation ack

HO command HO command
HO command
HO access
Link establishment

HO complete HO complete
clear command clear command

clear complete clear complete

GSM Evolution review

54
Evolution of cellular communication
Services
• From voice communication to voice and data
communication

Technologies
• From circuit switching to packet switching
 High-speed circuit-switched data
(HSCSD)
• is an enhancement to the original data
transmission mechanism of the GSM system,
• four times faster than GSM, up to 38.4 kbit/s.
• circuit-switched mode.
• Higher speeds are achieved as a result of
superior coding methods, and the ability to
use multiple time slots to increase data
throughput.
High Speed Circuit Switched Data
(HSCSD)

57
 General Packet Radio Service
(GPRS)
• 2.5G
• is a packet oriented mobile data service.
• usage charging is based on volume of data.
• Use packet switching method.
• provides data rates of 56-114 kbps
• GPRS extends the GSM Packet circuit switched data
capabilities and makes the following services possible:
– "Always on" internet access
– Multimedia messaging service (MMS)
– Push to talk over cellular (PoC/PTT)
– Instant messaging (IM)
Global Packet Radio Service
(GPRS)

59
 Evolution of GSM…
• EDGE (Enhanced Data rate for GSM Evolution)
– 2.5 G , also known as Enhanced GPRS (EGPRS)
– new modulation scheme, GMSK(Gaussian minimum-shift keying) &
8PSK ( 8 phase shift keying)
– 384 kbps is the maximum data rate
– designed for service providers that may or may not migrate to UMTS
• UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications Systems)
– 3G
– 144kbps for vehicular access
– 384 kbps for wide-area coverage (pedestrian)
– 2 Mbps for local coverage (stationary)
– WCDMA (wideband CDMA)
– Adopted by Europe and Japan

60
 Evolution of CDMA…
• CDMA2000 1X
– 2.5G
– use CDMA channel access, to send voice, data, and
signaling data between mobile phones and cell sites.
– up to 153 kbps
• CDMA2000 1xEV-DO (Evolution-Data Optimized)
– 3G
– broadband Internet access
– Uses CDMA/TDMA
– up to 3Mbps
 Quiz(5%)
1. Write the reasons for hand off and different Types of hand off 2point
2. Write at least 3 main functions of MSC? 2 point
3. What is roaming and types of roaming 1point