Thermodynamics

ME-102
Credit hours: 02
 Introduction
❖ Educational:
• M.Engg-(2018)-NED UET- Industrial and Manufacturing (Mfg)
• ISP title- Evaluation of Mechanical properties of 3D printed ABS plastic using Fused
Deposition Modelling Technology (FDM)
• B.E-(2013)- NED UET- Industrial and Manufacturing
❖ Experience:
• DHA Suffa University- (2015-2018)
❖ Contact:
• monamujeeb@ymail.com
 Course learning outcomes

• At the end of the course the student should be able to:

CLO 1. Describe fundamental concepts of thermodynamics terms and laws.
CLO 2. Explain pure substance, properties of steam, refrigerants, ideal gases and
real gases.
CLO 3. Analyze first and second law as applied to simple thermo-mechanical
closed system, and steady- state-steady-flow-system processes.
(Program learning Outcome) PLO 1-Engineering knowledge
 Text books
• Thermodynamics by Y A Cengel and M A Boles, 6th Edition 2008,
McGrawHill ISBN0070262179
What is Thermodynamics?
▪ The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek word therme (heat) and dynamics (power)
▪ Thermodynamics is the science which revolves around the principles of energy characteristics and
energy transfer.
▪ It studies the behavior of two important forms of energy:- Heat and Work Energy along with all
elements of Power Production.
Principle of Conservation of Energy :
▪ Thermodynamics also require that we fully understand the importance of Principle of
Conversation of Energy
▪ This principle demands us to recognize that : “ENERGY CAN CHANGE FROM ONE FORM
TO ANOTHER. BUT THE TOTAL AMOUNT OF ENERGY REMAINS CONSTANT.”
▪ SIGNIFYING THAT : ENERGY CANNOT BE CREATED OR DESTROYED
▪ This is also known as the first law of thermodynamics
▪ To study Thermodynamics we need to be aware of interaction between the different forms of
energy, and the methods by which we can analyze these interactions. It is thus necessary that we
study:-

a) Thermodynamic Systems
b) State of a system
c) Properties of a system
d) Heat and work interaction

However before we do this we need to be very clear about the way one goes about measuring the
specific parameters , which are required to understand the science of Thermodynamics.

This would mean measuring The physical quantities, and using the physical quantities to specify the
important parameters. And having a proper way of defining the physical quantities as well as the
parameters.
 UNITS AND DIMENSIONS
• To define a physical quantity we make use of Dimensions
These are : Length, Area, Velocity, Density, Time, Mass etc.

• Primary Dimensions: Now the primary dimensions used in Thermodynamics are four:
Mass (M)
Length (L)
Time (t)
Temperature (T)

Secondary Dimensions
These are dimensions which are expressed in terms of primary dimensions:-
Velocity (L/t)
Area (L^2)
Volume ( L^3)
Force (mL/t^2)
Pressure (m/Lt^2)
Density (L^3)
 UNITS AND DIMENSIONS
These dimensions are expressed in terms of basic unit of measurement which is:
Dimension Foot Pound Second System International
FPS System SI System
Length foot meter
Mass pound kilogram
Time seconds seconds
Temperature oC oC

The whole world is now using the SI system as the FPS system was the old system.
For our studies we will use always SI system. Thus we will refer to:
One another quantity is Weight. By definition it is:

So if we have 1kg of mass it has a weight of:

W= 1x 9.807 = 9.8 kg m/sec^2 = 9.8 Newtons
Dimensional Homogeneity
Whenever we carry out engineering operations we need to make sure that ENGINEERING
EQUATIONS ARE DIMENSIONALLY HOMOGENOUS
 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM
Thermodynamic System is defined as :
A quantity of matter or region in space towards which we direct our attention.
It must have one or more boundaries and these boundaries can be real or imaginary.
It may be at rest or motion and can be deformable.

Anything outside the system is known as Surroundings. Work, Heat , Mass as well as other sources of
energy can cross the boundaries ie enter or leave the system
Based on the definition in the previous slide we can have three types of Systems.
1. Closed
2. Open
3. Isolated

1. CLOSED SYSTEM: NON-FLOW SYSTEM

In such a system mass is not allowed to cross the boundary . The boundary may move in or out but
mass is not allowed to come in or go out. There is no restriction on energy , it may come in or go out.

2. OPEN SYSTEM: Flow system

Here mass is allowed to cross the boundaries, along with energy . Also referred as Control Volume
system.
3. ISOLATED SYSTEM
Here neither mass nor energy is allowed to cross the boundary.

All the three systems have thermodynamic equations which are unique . Thus identifying the System is very important
before analyzing it.
 FORMS OF ENERGY
• We are all familiar with energy in its various forms as we encounter them. As you may recall from
physics we have it in these form:-

• The sum of all these energies is called as Total Energy (E).

• The total energy of a system on a unit mass basis is:
In thermodynamics we are worried mostly about the change of energy as well as the content of
energy. Generally in thermodynamics we focus on three forms of energy:
1. Internal Energy (U)
2. Kinetic Energy (K.E)
3. Potential Energy (P.E)
The rest are insignificantly small and hence : E = U+KE+PE
We are familiar with KE and PE .Lets look at Internal energy.

INTERNAL ENERGY
• Internal Energy is the sum of all microscopic forms of energy of a system mass.
• It is related to the Molecular Structure and Molecular activity. So we look at the sum of kinetic
and potential energies of the molecules.
• For better understanding of internal energy let us examine a system at molecular level. These can
be represented by:
ALL ENERGIES ASSOCIATED WITH KINETIC
ENERGIES OF MOLECULES ARE KNOWN AS
SENSIBLE ENERGY
• The Internal energy is also associated with the binding forces:
✔ between the molecules of a substance,
✔ between the atoms within a molecule, and
✔ between the particles of the atom with its nucleus.

• Binding forces are strongest in Solids and weakest in Gases.

• If sufficient energy given to a molecule of solid they will break the e binding forces & turn into a
liquid. This is a phase change process.
• A gas phase has higher internal energy as compared to solid or liquid phase.
• Internal Energy associated with phase of a system is called LATENT ENERGY.
❑ Some energy is also associated with the atomic bonding of a substance. Energy associated with
the atomic bonding is called as CHEMICAL ENERGY. To release chemical energy we however
need to undergo a CHEMICAL REACTION.

❑ Sometimes because of Nuclear Reaction we change the core structure of Molecules. This leads to
Nuclear energy.

❑ We lump all these energies and call them collectively as INTERNAL ENERGY. We will learn to
calculate all these energies at the later part of our course.

In thermodynamics we are very much involved with Internal Energy .

 PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
• Any characteristic of a system is known as Property. It is something which can be quantitatively
evaluated.
• It is an inherent attribute of the system. Examples of properties are :- volume, mass, temperature,
pressure, viscosity, density, thermal conductivity etc.
• Properties are classified into 2 types:
a) Intensive properties b)Extensive properties

Intensive Property
This property is such that the value of the property is the same as the value of the whole system. Lets
look at the mixture of gases in the room:

If the room is your system then the Pressure and Temperature will be the same at all points of the room.
This means that :

The property of the system is not a summation of individual properties of the components of the
system
Extensive Properties.
Here the value of the extensive property of the system is equal to the sum of the individual
components.
Room contains a mixture of O2 , N2 and CO2. The entire room is in thermal and Mechanical
Equilibrium

These value will have separate values whether the system is in equilibrium or not.

We also have a classification called as Specific Property.

An extensive property can be made into a specific property by dividing it by the mass of the system
or component.
STATE OF SYSTEM AND EQUILIBRIUM
• The state of a system is the condition of the system.
• It is identified by the properties of the system. These values of the properties have to be fixed..
• If the value of the properties of the system is found to be changing then it tells us that the state of
the system is changing. To understand this lets look at a piston and cylinder arrangement.
THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
A thermodynamic system is considered to be in Equilibrium (state of balance) if all its properties
do not change. If any one property changes then the system is not in equilibrium.

For state Equilibrium all Properties must not change. Hence system must be in :
a. Thermal equilibrium “No temperature change”
b. Mechanical equilibrium “ No Pressure or Volume change”
c. Chemical equilibrium “ No chemical reactions”
d. Phase equilibrium “ Mass of each phase is constant” (if system has 2 phases)
Process
When a system undergoes a change, from one Equilibrium State to another then this is known as a process.

State 1 and 2 are equilibrium states and the process is from State 1 to 2. We can show the change of
state on a graphical plot. So if we show the change of P vs T
• The series of state through which a system passes during a process is known as path of the process.
• To describe a process completely we should specify the initial and final states of the process
along with the path it follows .
• When a process proceeds in a manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to equilibrium
state at all times , it is called as quasi-static or quasi-equilibrium process.
• Quasi static process are achieved very slowly because it allows the system to adjust itself internally
so that properties in one part of the system do not change any faster than other parts.
• We will assume most processes as quasi static. This is because WHEN WE DO THE PROCESS
QUASI STATICALLY THERE IS A UNIFORM CHANGE OF PROPERTIES WITHIN THE
SYSTEM.
• For example when a gas in a piston is compressed suddenly the molecules near the face of the
piston will pile up in a small region in front of the piston thus creating a high pressure region there.
Because of this pressure difference the system is no longer in equilibrium and this makes the entire
process non-quasi-equilibrium. If piston is moved slowly the pressure inside will be uniform and will
rise at same rate at all locations.
• We often show the process on a P-V diagram as shown below:

The process can be shown as paths on PROPERTY DIAGRAMS as:

• In most of the processes that we will study, one thermodynamic property is held constant. Some of
these processes are

Only Quasi Static processes can be shown as Paths.

CYCLE
A process where the system goes through the entire process with the initial state becoming the final
state.

Cycle are a very important process and are used in most thermodynamic processes and events.

We will study them later and see their usefulness.

State Postulate
▪ We have seen that the state of a system is defined by the value of its properties. Now a system can
have more than one properties , so is it really necessary to define all the properties to fix the state of
the system.

▪ But do we really need to define the value of all the properties?

▪ In fact we need to know , the minimum number of properties which can describe the state of the
system. This minimum number will then fix the other properties.

▪ This is provided by the “STATE POSTULATE”

▪ Here simple compressible system means that there is an absence of influence of electrical,
magnetic, gravitational, forces and effect of motion and surface tension. These are External Forces
and are mostly neglected.
▪ However if the external forces are significant then we need to specify more properties, which are
affected by external forces. Example if gravitational effect are considered then elevation z needs to
be specified in addition to the two properties.

▪ We have talked about two Independent Properties , so lets see that what do we mean by
independent properties.
INDEPENDENT PROPERTIES

✔ T and P can be independent properties

✔ T and specific volume are always independent properties
✔ T and Density( ρ) can be independent properties
✔ It is important that we pick the “CORRECT INDEPENDENT PROPERTIES”
Steady Flow Processes
• The term steady and uniform are used frequently in engineering hence we need to have clear understanding
of theses terms
• Steady means no change with time. Opposite of steady is unsteady of transient.
• The term uniform means no change with location over a specified region
• Devices operating for long periods of time under same condition are classified as steady flow devices
• Hence, Processes which comprises of such devices are called steady flow process
• Therefore steady flow processes are defined as, ‘ Process during which a fluid flows through a control
volume steadily.’
• In other words it means, the fluid properties can change from point to point in control volume, but at any
fixed point they remain the same during the entire process. Hence the volume V, mass M and total energy
content E of control volume remains constant during a steady flow process
Let us now look at two very important properties which is very much dominant in Thermodynamics
PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE

Pressure
• Pressure is defined as Force per unit area.

• It is mostly applicable for Gases and Liquids

• In solids it is called as “ STRESS” which is:

• Now if we take a liquid then for liquids

• In gases the pressure is considered uniform for moderate depths because weight of gas is
insignificant.
Pressure has units of Pascals(Pa)

• Now most of the time we are surrounded by the Atmosphere around us , so we must compensate
in our assessment of pressure by catering for Atmospheric Pressure.
Pressure Measurement
Special Devices are used to measure pressure these are Manometers
A barometer is used by weather people to measure the atmospheric pressure It consists of a inverted
tube placed in a mercury container. as shown below
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT AND ZEROTH’S LAW
• Temperature is considered as a thermodynamic property that is the measure of the energy content
of a mass.
• We generally associate temperature with our sense of hotness and coldness. i.e Freezing, cold, warm,
hot, red hot.
• However we cannot assign numerical values to temperature based on our sensation
• We need to have a method by which we can assign numerical values to Temperature.
• One convenient way is to relate a specific property of a material to the temperature of the material.
• THE MOST COMMON PROPERTY IS THE EXPANSION OF A LIQUID WITH ITS
TEMPERATURE.
• This is the most common method in use. Other properties like density and electrical resistivity is
also used to relate temperature and make thermometers.
• However before we devise thermometers , we need to look at the concept of Thermal Equilibrium
• We have two plates at different temperatures. If we bring the Iron plate and Copper plate in contact
then heat will flow from Iron to Copper. As a result
❖ Temperature of iron will drop.
❖ Temperature of Copper will rise.
❖ After some time Both copper and iron will achieve the same temperature.

• Since heat flows because of difference of temperature so heat flow will stop when both are at the
same temperature.

• Thus when both bodies reach the same temperature , then as there is no heat flow they have achieved
THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM

“ THUS FOR EQUALITY OF TEMPERATURE THE BASIC REQUIREMENT IS TO HAVE

THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM”
We thus now look at Zeroth’s Law.
Zeroth’s Law : If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body then they are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
This law is simple and is the basis of validity of Temperature measurement.
and thus we can say that

Inequality of Temperature
Suppose we have 3 bodies
So if we have a body S2 which has some physical change on contact with body with unequal temperature
then we can use the body as a means of measuring temperature. This is the basis of Thermometers where
we use the property of a system to evaluate temperature.

TEMPERATURE SCALES
Before we construct a thermometer we need to define some reference points. These are:
a. Ice Point (TIce). The temperature of a mixture of Ice and Water at a pressure of one atmosphere i.e 0°C or 32°F
b. Steam Point ( TSteam). The temperature of water boiling at a pressure of one atmosphere. i.e 100°C or 212°F
We use these points to develop a scale. These are often referred as two point scales since temperature values are
assigned at two different points.
Celsius or Centigrade Fahrenheit
TIce = 0o TIce = 32o
TSteam= 100o TSteam= 212o

So,
▪ There is also a scale , which is independent of the properties of any substance.
This is known as thermodynamic temperature scale. It is called as Kelvin in SI units and
Rankine in English System
K=Tcentigrade+273.15 R=TFarenhiet+459.67

The lowest temperature on this scale is 0 K or 273 oC

Scientists have been able to achieve 2X10-10 K

▪ The ideal gas temperature scale is extremely identical to the Kelvin scale. Well to have this
we use an ideal gas and the principle of operation is to have a CONSTANT VOLUME GAS
TEMPERATURE DEVICE (rigid vessel filled with gas at low pressure)

This thermometer is based on the principle that at low pressures the Temperature of a Gas is proportional to
its pressure at Constant Volume. That is, temp of a gas of fixed volume varies linearly with pressure at
sufficiently low pressure . This relationship can be represented by:
So if we take several gases at low pressure with fixed volume and reduce the temperature we will get a
plot which relates the Pressure to Temperature

The value of the constants a and b will be different for each gas. However if we extend the plot to
Zero Pressure then we find that all plots meet at one point which is -273.15 oC.
So the lowest temperature is -273.15 oC or 0oK

This lowest temperature is known as Absolute Zero.

Real Gases do not behave completely like Ideal gases but very close to it.

A third reference has also been found and it is called the triple Point . This is the state when water can
co-exist as steam, ice and liquid water. This is 0.01 oC.

The divisions on oK scale and oC scale are of equal values by:

Similarly,