IDENTIFY

PROPERTIES OF
METALS
IND BMW1 03 1017
LO1. Classify common Solomon T.
ferrous and non-ferrous
metals
 MATERIALS
Materials are physical substances used in production or
manufacturing.
Material classification helps designers, engineers, and scientists
choose the proper materials for specific applications
Materials are physical substances used in production or
manufacturing. Materials can be raw, semi finished, or finished. Sheet
metal is a finished material. It is produced from raw materials like iron
and carbon that are mined and processed into steel. This semi finished
material is then processed further into the finished material: sheet
metal.
Materials are generally classified based on their properties and
characteristics.
A basic classification method divides materials into metals and
nonmetals.
Metals are further divided into nonferrous (contains no iron) and
ferrous (iron, steel) categories. Nonmetals can be further classified
into polymer, ceramic, and composite categories
Materials
 METALS
Metals are a substance that have the ability to conduct electricity and
heat.
Metals are used in electronics for wires and in cookware for pots and
pans because they conduct electricity and heat well.
Metals are strong and malleable. For these reasons, metals have been
used for hundreds of centuries.
They played an important role in advancing civilizations.
both ferrous and nonferrous, have many useful properties. This
ensures that they will continue to be used now and in the future.
Metals are common in manufacturing today. From building and
construction work to vehicles and leisure products, they are a vital
material for product designers and engineers.
The elements of all metals are found naturally in the earth. However,
they need to be extracted and processed before they can be used for
manufacturing purposes.
The choice of materials for a given job depends very much on its
properties, cost, availability and such other factors. Metals may
conveniently be divided into ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
ferrous and non ferrous metals
Distinctions between ferrous and non-ferrous
metals
I. FERROUS METALS AND ALLOYS
Ferrous metals may be defined as those metals whose main
constituent is iron such as pig iron, wrought iron, cast iron, steel and
their alloys.
They are usually stronger and harder and are used in daily life
products.
All ferrous metals are magnetic and have poor corrosion resistance.
They are widely used in machinery, construction, and other
applications where the ability to carry a load is important.
They possess a special property that their characteristics can be altered
by heat treatment processes or by addition of small quantity of
alloying elements.
Ferrous metals possess different physical properties according to their
carbon content.
Iron and steel are the most common ferrous metals.
Ferrous metals have a high carbon content which generally makes
them vulnerable to rust when exposed to moisture.
There are two exceptions to this rule: wrought iron resists rust due to
its purity and stainless steel is protected from rust by the presence of
chromium.
Ferrous metals include cast iron, steel, and the various steel alloys, the
only difference between iron and steel is the carbon content.
An alloy is a substance composed of two or more elements.
Alloying element: substance added to a base substance to improve
specific properties.
These alloying elements are added for several reasons:
To improve mechanical properties.
To improve resistance to corrosion and oxidization.
To improve hardenability of the steel.
The most Ferrous metals are
I. Cast iron
It is primarily an alloy of iron and carbon.
Cast iron is brittle and hard and resistant to wear.
The carbon content in cast iron varies from 1.5 to 4 per cent.
Small amounts of silicon, manganese, Sulphur and phosphorus are
also present in it.
Cast iron contains so much carbon or its equivalent that it is not
malleable.
Melting point of cast iron is much lower than that of steel.
The characteristics of cast iron which make it a valuable material for
engineering applications are:
(1) Very good casting characteristics.
(2) Low cost
(3) High compressive strength
(4) Good wear resistance
(5) Excellent machinability
The main limitation of this metal is brittleness and low tensile strength
and thus cannot be used in those components subjected to shocks.
The varieties of cast iron in common uses are:
(1) Grey cast iron
(2) White cast iron
(3) Malleable cast iron
(4) Nodular cast iron
(5) Chilled cast iron
(6) Alloy cast iron
1. Grey Cast Iron
It is the iron which is most commonly used in foundry work
If this iron is machined or broken, its fractured section shows the
grayish color, hence the name “grey” cast iron.
other properties are good machinability, high compressive strength,
low tensile strength and no ductility.
In view of its low cost, it is preferred in all fields where ductility and
high strength are not required.
The grey cast iron castings are widely utilized in machine tool bodies,
automobile cylinder blocks and flywheels, etc.
2. White Cast Iron
It is so called due to the whitish color shown by its fracture.
White cast iron contains carbon exclusively in the form of iron carbide
Fe3C (cementite).
From engineering point of view, white cast iron has limited
applications. This is because of poor machinability and possessing, in
general, relatively poor mechanical properties.
Only crushing rolls are made of white cast iron. But it is used as raw
material for production of malleable cast iron
3. Malleable Cast Iron
Malleable cast iron is produced from white cast iron.
The white cast iron is brittle and hard.
The malleable cast iron is produced from white cast iron by suitable
heat treatment, i.e., annealing.
The malleable cast iron is ductile and may be bent without rupture or
breaking the section.
Its tensile strength is usually higher than that of grey cast iron and has
excellent machining qualities.
This material is principally employed in rail, road automotive and pipe
fittings, etc.
4. Nodular Cast Iron
It is also known as “spheroidal graphite iron” or ductile iron or “High
strength Cast iron”.
This nodular cast iron is obtained by adding magnesium to the molten
cast iron.
The strength increases, yield point improves and brittleness is
reduced.
The applications include hydraulic cylinders, valves, pipes and pipe
fittings, cylinder head for compressors, diesel engines, etc.
5. Chilled Cast Iron
Quick cooling is generally known as chilling and the iron so produced
is “chilled iron”.
Chilled castings are used in producing stamping dies and crushing
rolls railway, wheels cam followers, and so on.
6. Alloy cast iron
The cast irons as discussed above contain small percentages of other
constituents like silicon, manganese, Sulphur and phosphorus.
The alloy cast iron is produced by adding alloying elements like
nickel, chromium, molybdenum, copper and manganese
These alloying elements give more strength and result in improvement
of properties.
The alloy cast iron has special properties like increased strength, high
wear resistance, corrosion resistance or heat resistance.
The alloy cast irons are extensively used for automobile parts like
cylinders, pistons, piston rings, crank cases, brake drums, parts of
.crushing and grinding machinery etc.
Ii Wrought iron
Wrought iron is an alloy with so little carbon content it’s almost pure
iron.
wrought iron is excellent resistance to corrosion and oxidation,
however, it is low in hardness and fatigue strength.
Wrought iron contains less than 0.25 percent carbon and is malleable
and tough. It’s used in water pipes, machine tools, automobile engines
and stoves.
Iii Steels
Steel is a general term used to describe alloys in which iron is the base
metal and carbon is the most important added element
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon with carbon content maximum up
to 1.7%.
 Steel is made by heating and melting iron ore in furnaces.
Steel is widely used in the construction and manufacturing industries.
Steel is usually classified as either plain carbon steel or alloy steel.
Most of the steel produced now-a-days is plain carbon steel.
A. Plain carbon steel Plain carbon steel is an alloy of iron and carbon.
It has good machinability and malleability.
It is different from cast iron as regards the percentage of carbon.
The carbon content in plain carbon steel does not exceed 1.7 percent.
It contains carbon from 0.06 to 1.5% whereas cast iron possesses
carbon from 1.8 to 4.2%.
Depending upon the carbon content, a plain carbon steels can divided
to the following types:
1. Dead carbon steel — up to 0.15% carbon
2. Low carbon or mild steel — 0.15% to 0.45% carbon
3. Medium carbon steel — 0.45% to 0.8% carbon
4. High carbon steel — 0.8% to 1.5% carbon
The higher the carbon content, the harder and stronger the steel.
 The properties of the steel depend on carbon content and heat
treatment.
Dead carbon steel
It possesses very low percentage of carbon varying from 0.05 to
0.15%. Steel wire, sheets, rivets, screws, pipe, nail and chain are made
from this steel.
Low carbon or mild steel
Low carbon steel is sometimes known as mild steel also. It contains
0.20 to 0.30% C
It can be easily forged and welded.
It has less strength and hardness and so is easier to machine and work.
Low-carbon steel is used to make galvanized sheets, storage tanks, and
is used in bridge, ship, and building parts.
Medium carbon steels
Medium carbon steel contains carbon from 0.30 to 0.8%.
It can be easily forged, welded, elongated due to ductility and beaten
into sheets due to its good malleability.
Heat treating increases its hardness and strength.
Common uses for medium-carbon steel include automobile parts,
forgings, and high-strength castings.
It is more expensive than low-carbon steel.
It is generally used for making railway coach axles, bolts, connecting
rods, key stock, wires and rods, shift and break levers, spring clips,
gear shafts, small and medium forgings, railway coach axles, crank
pins on heavy machines, spline shafts, crankshafts, forging dies, set
screws, die blocks, self tapping screws, clutch discs, valve springs,
plate punches, thrust washers etc.
High carbon steels
High carbon steels (HCS) contain carbon from 0.8 to 1.5%. Because
of their high hardness, these are suitable for wear resistant parts.
They may only be used in the manufacture of cutting tools operating
at low cutting speeds.
B. Alloy steel
Alloy steel is carbon steel that contains 1–4 percent alloying elements.
For improving the properties of ordinary steel, certain alloying
elements are added in it in sufficient amounts. The most common
alloying elements added to steel are chromium, nickel, manganese,
silicon, vanadium, molybdenum, tungsten, phosphorus, copper,
titanium, zirconium, cobalt, columbium, and aluminum.
Like plain carbon steel, alloy steel is also divided into groups: low-
alloy steel and high-alloy steel. Low-alloy steel contains less than 10
percent alloying elements. The amount of alloy is sufficient to change
the steel properties. High-alloy steel contains more than 10 percent
alloying elements. Stainless steel and tool steel are two types of high-
alloy steel.
Stainless steel resists oxidation and corrosion when correctly heat
treated and finished. It is also easy to clean. Stainless steel sheets are
used to make industrial kitchen equipment such as sinks, food
preparation surfaces, and range hoods. They are also used to make
hospital equipment. Stainless steel is a widely used material in the
sheet metal industry.
Tool steel is carbon or alloy steel with properties suitable for use in
tools. High-speed steel is one type of tool steel. It is used in cutting
tools found on lathes and milling machines.
They may be used separately or in combination to produce desired
characteristics in the steel.
The main purpose of alloying element in steel is to improve
machinability, elasticity, hardness, case hardening, cutting ability,
toughness, wear resistance, tensile strength, corrosion resistance, and
ability to retain shape at high temperature, ability to resist distortion at
elevated temperature and to impart a fine grain size to steel.
Ferrous facts
contain iron
will corrode unless protected
are attracted by a magnet(which makes them very useful for motor
and electrical applications
are strong, rigid and cheap.
Ii Non ferrous metals
Non-ferrous metals are those which do not contain significant quantity
of iron or iron as base metal.
Non-ferrous metals are metals that do not contain iron.
Nonferrous metals include copper, zinc, tin, antimony, lead, and
aluminum as well as precious metals like gold and silver. Nonferrous
alloys using those metals as a base element include brass, bronze, and
aluminum alloys.
Nonferrous metals are specified for structural applications requiring
reduced weight, higher strength, nonmagnetic properties, higher
melting points, or resistance to chemical and atmospheric corrosion.
They are also specified for electrical and electronic applications.
Their main advantage over ferrous materials is their malleability.
Non-ferrous metals have been used since the beginning of civilization.
They are utilized in industry due to following advantages:
1. High corrosion resistance
2. Easy to fabricate, i.e., machining, casting, welding, forging and
rolling
3. Possess very good thermal and electrical conductivity
4. Attractive color and low density
The various non-metals used in industry are: copper, aluminium, tin,
lead, zinc, and nickel, etc., and their alloys.
 Ferrous Metals Non- Ferrous Metals

Iron Aluminum

Low Carbon Steel Copper

Medium Carbon Steel Brass

High Carbon Steel Bronze

Cast Iron Zinc

Stainless Steel Lead

Tool Steels Tin

Others antimony and Others

Copper
Copper is red in color, highly ductile, malleable and has high
conductivity for electricity and heat.
Copper is principally used in the electrical industry in the form of wire
and other conductors.
Common Properties of copper are:
(1) High Thermal Conductivity: Used in heat exchangers, heating
vessels and appliances, etc.
(2) High Electrical Conductivity: Used as electrical conductor in various
shapes and forms for various applications.
(3) Good Corrosion Resistance
(4) High Ductility: Can be easily cold worked, folded and spun
The following two important copper alloys are widely used in
practice:
Brass (Cu-Zn alloy)
Copper is also used to make brass, an alloy of copper and zinc
Small percentages of tin, lead, and other metals are also found in some
types of brass.
Brass is highly corrosion resistant, easily machinable and therefore a
good bearing material.
The amount of zinc in brass can be determined by its color
Tensile strength varies, according to composition and treatment.
Brass is easily polished to a bright finish that is useful in decorative
applications.
Bronze (Cu-Sn alloy)-
In the past, bronze was defined as an alloy of copper and tin. Today, however,
alloys of copper and any alloying element other than zinc are also considered
bronzes.
Bronze is used in a variety of applications, from decorative bells to marine
parts.
It was originally made for casting guns but used now for boiler fittings, bushes,
glands and other such uses.
In tin bronzes, the amount of tin alloyed with the bronze determines its
use
Bronze is used instead of brass in some instances for its unique
appearance and greater strength.
bronze becomes more brittle when the amount of tin increases above 5
percent.
Generaly it is A nonferrous metal that is an alloy of copper and tin, or
copper and alloying elements other than zinc.
Aluminum
Aluminum is lightweight, soft and low strength but can be made extremely
strong through the use of alloying elements or heat treatment.
It’s not suitable for high-temperature environments. Because aluminum is
lightweight, it is a good choice for the manufacturing of aircraft and food
cans.
It is also corrosion resistant, low weight and non-toxic.
Common Properties of Aluminum are:
(1) Like copper it is also corrosion resistant.
(2) It is very good conductor of heat and electricity although not as good as copper.
(3) Possesses high ductility and light weight so widely utilized in aircraft industry.
(4) In view of its ductility and malleability it has replaced copper in electrical
transmission and appliances to some extent.
(5) It is used in manufacturing of household utensils including pressure cookers.
Common aluminum alloying elements include copper, silicon,
magnesium, nickel, iron, zinc, and manganese.
The following important Aluminum alloys are widely used in practice:
♦Duralumin- This is an alloy of 4% Cu(copper), 0.5% Mn(manganese),
0.5% Mg(magnesium) and aluminum. It is widely used in automobile
and aircraft components.
♦Y-alloy- This is an alloy of 4% Cu, 1.5% Mn, 2% Ni(nickel), 6%
Si(silicon), Mg, Fe(iron) and the rest is Al(aluminum). It gives large
strength at high temperature. It is used for aircraft engine parts such as
cylinder heads, piston etc.
♦Magnesium- This is an aluminum alloy with 2 to 10 % magnesium. It
also contains 1.75% Cu. Due to its light weight and good strength it is
used for aircraft and automobile components.
Nickel
Nickel is as hard as steel. It possesses good heat resistance. It is tough
and having good corrosion resistance
Lead
It is the softest and heaviest of all the common metals.
Lead is a soft, heavy, malleable metal with a low melting point and
low tensile strength.
It can withstand corrosion from moisture and many acids.
It melts at 621nF (327ºC) and is soft enough to be cut with a knife.
Lead is widely used in electrical power cables, batteries, building
construction and soldering.
Lead has properties of high density and easy workability.
It has very good resistance to corrosion and many acids have no
chemical action on it.
ZINC
Zinc is a medium to low strength metal with a very low melting point.
It can be machined easily
Zinc is most widely used in galvanizing, the process of applying a
protective zinc coating to iron or steel to prevent rust
Zinc is brittle at room temperature, but malleable and ductile between
212ºF (100ºC) and 300ºF (149ºC).
These are used in car bodies to reduce corrosion resulting from road
salt. Zinc is also used for eaves, gutters, and roofs because it is light
and easy to handle.
Zinc is commonly used as a protective coating on iron and steel in the
form of a galvanized or sprayed surface.
A nonferrous metal used to galvanize iron and steel against corrosion
TIN
Tin is very soft and malleable, ductile with low tensile strength.
It’s often used to coat steel to prevent corrosion.
It can easily be drawn into wire at 2120F (100ºC) and rolled into very
thin sheets.
Tin is can also be alloyed with copper to produce tin brass and bronze.
It does not corrode in wet and dry conditions. Therefore, it is
commonly used as a protective coating material for iron and steel
Because of its high malleability, it finds application in tin cans for
storing food and food items.
Titanium and Titanium Alloys
In process industry unalloyed titanium is commonly used. Titanium is
selected for its excellent corrosion resistance properties in large
varieties of environments, especially in applications where high
strength is not required.
Basic metal identification
When you are selecting a metal to use in fabrication, to perform a
mechanical repair, or even to determine if the metal is weldable, you
must be able to identify its basic type.
Materials are selected for use in products based on their properties,
cost, source, and environmental impact.
The most important of these considerations is the properties of the
materials.
A number of field identification methods can be used to identify a
piece of metal.
Some common methods are surface appearance, spark test, chip test,
magnet test, and occasionally a hardness test.
Identifying properties of Metal
Properties
Properties: The characteristics or qualities of a material when that
material is placed in certain conditions or combined with other
materials.
Sheet metals are made from various metals, including iron, aluminum,
steel, and copper. Each material has properties that define its character
or behavior under various conditions. Knowing the properties of all
types of metals helps in selecting the right type of sheet metal for a
particular job.
Materials have three basic properties: mechanical, physical, and
chemical. Mechanical properties determine the ability of a material to
resist or carry mechanical stresses or forces. Physical properties are
the characteristics of a material as it interacts with various forms of
energy (light, heat, electricity, and magnetism). Chemical properties
are the characteristics of a material as it reacts with its environment,
such as gases, liquids, and solids.
Physical Properties
These properties are related to the atomic structure and density of the
material.
(i) Coefficient of Linear Expansion: The coefficient of linear
expansion is the increase in length of a body for a given rise in
temperature. Metal expands when heated and contracts when
cooled. It increases not only in length, but also in breath and
thickness. The increase in unit length when a solid is heated one
degree is called the coefficient of linear expansion.
(ii) Heat and Electrical Conductivity: Heat and electrical conductivity
is the ability of a material to conduct or transfer heat or electricity.
(iii) Magnetic Susceptibility: Magnetic susceptibility is the ability of a
material to hold a magnetic field when it is magnetized.
(iv) Reflectivity: Reflectivity is the ability of a material to reflect light
or heat.
(v) Specific Gravity: also called relative density ,is the ratio of the
density of a substance to the density of a reference substsnce .
Equivalently it is the ratio of the mass of a substace for the same given
volume . Apparent specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of a volume
of the substance to the waight of an equale volume of the reference
substance . The reference substace for liquids is nearly always water
.and aslso for gas it is air .
(vi) Melting Point: The melting point is the temperature at which a
substance passes from a solid state to a liquid state.
Mechanical Properties
STRENGTH
Strength is the ability of a material to resist stress.
Stress is the result of a force or load applied to a material.
For example, steel beams used to frame a building are under stress
simply from their own weight. Those beams require incredible
strength to stay in place and not collapse under that weight. All metals
need strength to withstand the stresses encountered in different
applications.
Tensile strength is a material’s ability to resist a pulling force. This
force is tensile stress. Imagine a rope hammock.
Compressive strength resists the force created by materials pressing
together or compacting. Compressive force is created by opposite forces
pushing against each other. Compressive strength: A material’s ability to
resist the force created by opposite objects pushing against each other.
Flex strength is the ability to withstand tensile and compressive forces.
When a material is flexed, it experiences tension on one side and
compression on the opposite side. Flex strength: The ability of a
material to withstand bending forces.
Shear strength is a material’s ability to resist sliding action. The sliding
action or force is parallel to the resisting area. Shear force is usually not
as strong in most materials as tensile or compressive force. A related
strength is torsion strength, the ability to resist a rotating force.
In general Shear strength: A material’s ability to resist sliding forces.and
Torsion strength: Related to shear strength; the ability of a material to
resist a rotating force.
Impact strength is a material’s ability to withstand a sudden shock or
load.
Fatigue strength is the ability to withstand repeated stress. Fatigue
stress is cyclic, occurring over and over. Bending a metal rod back and
forth repeatedly at the same point is an example of fatigue stress.
Eventually, the rod will break.
HARDNESS
Hardness is the ability of material to resist penetration or scratching
by another material.
It is one of the most important properties of metal as it relates directly
to several other properties.
Knowing the hardness of a material also indicates the strength,
brittleness, and ductility of that material.
ELASTICITY AND PLASTICITY
Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its original shape
after a load is removed.
Plasticity is the ability of a material to be permanently deformed
without breaking.
DUCTILITY AND BRITTLENESS
Ductility: The ability of material to be drawn out, stretched, twisted,
or bent when cold, without breaking.
Brittleness: A characteristic of a material that allows it to break
suddenly
Brittleness usually increases as material becomes harder.

elasticity Ductility
TOUGHNESS
Toughness is a property related to strength and ductility. Tough
materials have the ability to absorb shock and to be deformed without
breaking.
MALLEABILITY
Malleability is the ability of a metal to be hammered,rolled, or pressed
into various shapes without rupture or fracture.
Wear Resistance: Abrasion resistance is the resistance to wearing by
friction.
Heat Resistance It is generally termed as to specify the variation of
resistivity with temperature
Thermal Properties
The study of thermal properties is essential in order to know the
response of metal to thermal changes i.e. lowering or raising of
temperature.
Melting Point
Melting point is the temperature at which a pure metal or compound
changes its shape from solid to liquid.
Other property
Magnetic Properties
Optical Properties
LO2 Test basic applications and methods
for manufacturing
Selecting cutting tools for the
machinability
One of the most important components in machining process Success
in metal cutting depends on selection of the proper cutting tool
(material and geometry) for a given work material.
Basic properties that cutting must possess are:
Tool material must be at least 30 to 50% harder than the work piece material.
Tool material must have high hot hardness temperature.
High toughness (impact strength).
High wear resistance
High thermal conductivity
Lower coefficient of friction
Easiness in fabrication and cheap
Resistance to deformation
Chemical stability
Testing basics on
Cast ability is defined as the property of metal, which indicates the ease
with it can be casted into different shapes and sizes.
In some cases casting is the only method of shaping a metal or alloy
Weld ability is the capability of a material to be welded under the
imposed fabrication conditions into a specific, suitably designed
structure and to perform satisfactorily in the intended service. Ex.
Copper
Forge ability The forge ability of a material can also be defined as the
capacity of a material to undergo deformation under compression
without rupture.
• Forge ability increases with temperature.
Corrosion is: defined as the deterioration of a material, usually a metal,
because of a reaction with its environment.
Carrying out Basic methods of processing
engineering materials
The cross-section of work piece changes without volume change.
Rolling: Compressive deformation process in which the thickness of a
plate is reduced by squeezing it through two rotating cylindrical rolls.
Forging: The work piece is compressed between two opposing dies so
that the die shapes are imparted to the work.

Extrusion: The work material is forced to flow through a die opening

taking its shape
Drawing: The diameter of a wire or bar is reduced by pulling it through
a die opening (bar drawing) or a series of die openings (wire drawing).

Metal spinning Spinning is used to make tubular (axis-symmetric)

parts by fixing a piece of sheet stock to a rotating form (mandrel).
Rollers or rigid tools press the stock against the form, stretching it until
the stock takes the shape of the form. Spinning is used to make rocket
motor casings, missile nose cones, satellite dishes and metal kitchen
funnels.
Typical shapes produced by the conventional spinning process.
Circular marks on the external surfaces of components usually
indicate that the parts have been made by spinning, such as
aluminum kitchen utensils and light reflectors.
Experiencing methods of manufacturing
in
Hot working: is process metal are plastically deformrd above their
recrystallization temperature.
And recrystallization is difined as the process in which grains of a crysal
stracture come in a new structure or new crystal shape.
Cold working: or cold forming is any metalworking process in which
metal is shaped below its recrystallization temprature.
Thermal processes: Thermal processing of materials refers to
manufacturing and material fabrication techniques that are strongly
dependent on the thermal transport mechanisms.
LO3. Perform basic common metal tests.
preparing basic metal tests
Metal testing is accomplished for the purpose of for estimating the
behavior of metal under loading (tensile, compressive, shear, torsion
and impact, cyclic loading etc.) of metal and for Providing necessary
data for the product designers, equipment designers, tool and die
designers and system designers.
This information is then used when choosing materials for a specific
application.
The materials chosen must be able to support the expected load. For
example, bridge-building materials need completely different
properties than materials used for gutters.
 Safety is the most important reason material testing is done.
Some of the purpose for the testing of materials are:
Ensure quality
Test properties
Prevent failure in use
Make informed choices in using materials
Testing is conducted using a material sample. The results of testing are
assumed to apply to all material from which the sample is taken.
Testing can be
destructive or
nondestructive.
In destructive testing, the test piece is destroyed and is no longer
usable.
Changes the dimensions or physical and structural integrity of the
specimen. (It is essentially destroyed during the test)
e.g., Tensile, Compression, Shear, Rockwell Hardness , impact, fatigue and
creep testing.

tensile test specimen

In nondestructive testing the test piece is not destroyed and can,
therefore, be used in a finished product.
Does not affect the structural integrity of the sample
E.g visual examination, radiographic tests, ultrasound test, liquid penetrating
test and magnetic particle testing.
MECHANICAL TESTING DESTRUCTIVE
TESTING
TENSILE STRENGTH AND DUCTILITY
Tensile strength and ductility are both measured by applying a pulling
force to a sample.
The tensile strength machine has a set of jaws
The material sample is placed in the machine and then pulled apart by
the jaws until the material breaks.
Tensile strength is measured by the elongation of the material
Ductility is also tested using a tensile test and is measured by the
elongation of the material and the reduction in cross sectional area.
tensile testing machine
The typical progress of tensile test can be

(1) beginning of test, no load

(2) uniform elongation and reduction of cross-sectional area
(3) continued elongation, maximum load reached
(4) necking begins, load begins to decrease
(5) Fracture
(6) If pieces are put back together as in, final length can be measured.
TENSILE TEST RESULTS

stress strain curve

stress strain curve for ductile material
stress strain curve for wrought iron and steel
stress strain curve for non ferrous metal
THE COMPRESSION TEST
Simplistically, compression testing is the opposite of tensile testing. A
compressive load tends to squeeze or compact the specimen.
Because the compression test increase the cross-sectional area of the
sample, necking never occurs.
Shear stress test
Shear testing involves an applied force or load that acts in a direction
parallel to the plane in which the load is applied.
Shear loads act differently than, say, tensile or compressive loads that
act normal or perpendicular to the axis of loading.
IMPACT TESTS TOUGHNESS TESTING
 When metal is subjected to suddenly applied load or stress, it may
fail. In order to assess the capacity of metal to stand sudden impacts,
the impact test is employed.
Impact tests generally involve sudden shock loading that results in
breakage of the specimen.
The Izod and Charpy tests are commonly used to measure impact
strength.
They differ only slightly, the configuration and specifications of the
test specimen
Toughness is measured using an impact test.
Impact tests are designed to test the ability of a notched sample to
absorb sudden force.

impact tests machine

A striker is mounted on the end of a pendulum. When it is released, it
breaks the sample. The height of the swinging pendulum after it breaks
the sample is the amount of energy absorbed by the sample piece.

Izod test Charpy test

Testing of Hardness
It is a very important property of the metals and has a wide variety of
meanings.
Hardness can be determined using a scratch test, an indentation test, or
a rebound test.
It embraces many different properties such as resistance to wear,
scratching, deformation and machinability etc.
It also means the ability of a metal to cut another metal.
The hardness of a metal may be determined by the following tests.
(a) Brinell hardness test
(b) Rockwell hardness test
(c) Vickers hardness (also called Diamond Pyramid) test
(d) Shore
In a scratch test, a sharp file is drawn slowly and firmly across the
surface of the sample material. If the file does not bite into the surface,
it is considered file hard. If the file cuts quickly and easily into the
surface, the material is soft.
rebound test. A small diamond-pointed hammer is dropped from a
predetermined height onto the surface of the test piece.
Indentation testing methods are the most commonly used method. In
these tests, an indenter of a known force is pressed into the material.
The depth or area of the resulting indentation is measured and given a
hardness value. Values differ based on which test is used.
Each test has its own scale and these scales do not correlate with each
other. So, a five on a Rockwell test is not the same as a five on a
Brinell test. However, all values increase as hardness increases.
The Rockwell hardness test uses either a hardened steel ball or a
diamond-tipped cone as the indenter.

Rockwell indenter (Rockwell B (ball) used for soft materials.

Rockwell C (cone) uses diamond cone for hard materials.)
Rockwell tests are considered nondestructive because the indentations
are so small they do not affect the integrity of the test piece.
In the higher hardness range, it is considered more accurate than the
Brinell test.
The Brinell hardness test applies a predetermined load onto a
hardened steel ball that then presses into the material under that load
for a short time interval (not less than 15 seconds).
Generally, the softer the metal, the larger the indentation, and the
lower the Brinell hardness number.
The Brinell test is considered destructive under some conditions.
 Brinell hardness indenter (Uses ball shaped indenter)

Brinell hardness tester

an illustration of The Brinell hardness test
The Vickers hardness test is done in the same way as the Brinell test,
but using a differently shaped indenter. The impression left by the
Vickers indenter is clearer than that left by the Brinell indenter.

Vickers hardness test indenter (Uses square shaped pyramid

indenter.)
The shore scleroscope hardness test is a type of rebound test. A small
diamond-pointed hammer is dropped from a predetermined height
onto the surface of the test piece. The rebound height of the hammer is
measured and this number translates to a scale.
 The corresponding number on the scale is the scleroscope hardness
number.
Softer material has greater deformation and less energy available for
rebound.
Spark Test
This test is fast, economical, convenient, easily accomplished, and
requires no special equipment.
Length of the spark stream
Form of the sparks and Color of the sparks
LO4 Define common heat treatment
outcomes and applications
Identifying the most common heat
treatment processes

Heat treatment is any one of a number of controlled heating and

cooling operations used to bring about a desired change in the physical
properties of a metal.
Its purpose is to improve the structural and physical properties for
some particular use or for future work of the metal.
There are five basic heat treating processes: hardening, case
hardening, annealing, normalizing, and tempering.
It consists of three main phases namely
Stage l- heating of the metal slowly to ensure a uniform temperature
Stage-2 Soaking (holding) the metal at a given temperature for a given
time
Stage-3 Cooling of the metal to room temperature
HEAT TREATMENT OF FERROUS METALS
HARDENING
Hardening and Hardness are two very different things. One is a
process of heat treatment and other is an extrinsic property of a
material.
A ferrous metal is normally hardened by heating the metal to the
required temperature and then cooling it rapidly by plunging the hot
metal into a quenching medium, such as oil, water, or brine. Most
steels must be cooled rapidly to harden them. The hardening process
increases the hardness and strength of metal, but also increases its
brittleness.
It is some time said as rapid quenching also.
Hardening is applied to cutting tools and machine parts where high
hardness and wear resistance are important.
The main purpose of hardening tool steel is to develop high hardness.
This enables tool steel to cut other metals. High hardness developed
by this process also improves wear resistance. Gears, shafts and
bearings. Tensile strength and yield strength are improved
considerably y hardening structural steels.
Because of rapid cooling, high internal stresses are developed in
the hardened steel. Hence these steels are generally brittle.
Hardening in general is followed by another treatment known as
tempering which reduces internal stresses and makes the hardened
steel relatively stable.
(a) shows the structure obtained on water quenching on hardening of
medium carbon steel.
(b) shows the structure obtained on oil quenching on hardening of
medium carbon steel.
(c) shows the structure obtained on water quenching on hardening of
medium carbon steel and followed by tempering.
TEMPERING
Steel is usually harder than necessary and too brittle for practical use
after being hardened.
These extra hardness, brittleness and unwanted induced stress and
strain in hardened metal reduce the usability the metal. Therefore,
these undesired needs must be reduced for by reheating and cooling at
constant temperature.
The rate of cooling usually has no effect on the metal structure during
tempering. Therefore, the metal is usually permitted to cool in still air.
Temperatures used for tempering are normally much lower than the
hardening temperatures.
The temperatures are related to the function of the parts.
Cutting tools are tempered between 230 – 300 oC.
If greater ductility and toughness are desired as in case of shafts and
high strength bolts, the steel is tempered in the range of 300 – 600 oC.
Depending on temperatures, tempering processes can be classified as:
1. Low- temperature tempering (150 – 250 o C),
2. Medium – temperature tempering (350 – 450 o C),
3. High – temperature tempering (500 – 650 o C).
NORMALIZING
Normalizing is a defined as softening process in which iron base
alloys are heated 400 to 500°C above the upper-critical limit for both
hypo and hyper eutectoid steels and held there for a specified period
and followed by cooling in still air up to room temperature.
Objectives
1. To soften metals
2. Refine grain structure
3. Improve machinability after forging and rolling
4. Improve grain size
5. Improve structure of weld
6. Prepare steel for sub heat treatment
ANNEALING
 It is a softening process
 Metals are annealed to relieve internal stresses, soften them, make
them more ductile, and refine their grain structures.
The rate at which metal is cooled from the annealing temperature
varies greatly. Steel must be cooled very slowly to produce maximum
softness
Objectives of Annealing
 The purpose of annealing is to achieve the following
1. Soften the steel.
2. Relieve internal stresses
3. Refine grain size.
4. Improve machinability.
5. Increase or restore ductility and toughness.
What Is the Difference Between Annealing and Normalizing?
Normalizing is very similar to annealing as both involve heating a
metal to or above its recrystallization temperature and allowing it to
cool slowly in order to create a microstructure that is relatively ductile.
The main difference between annealing and normalizing is that
annealing allows the material to cool at a controlled rate in a furnace.
Normalizing allows the material to cool by placing it in a room
temperature environment and exposing it to the air in that
environment.
This difference means normalizing has a faster cooler rate than
annealing.
The faster cooler rate can cause a material to have slightly less
ductility and slightly higher hardness value than if the material had
been annealed.
Normalizing is also generally less expensive than annealing because it
does not require additional furnace time during the cool down process.
Annealing is of two types (a) Process annealing (b) Full annealing.
CASE HARDENING
Sometimes special characteristic are required in metal such as hard
outer surface and soft, tough and more strength oriented core or inner
structure of metal. This can be obtained by casehardening process.
The addition of carbon to the outer skin is known as carburizing
It is applied to very low carbon steel.
It is performed for obtaining hard and wear resistance on surface of
metal and higher mechanical properties with higher fatigue, strength
and toughness in the core.
Explaining the changes in metal
properties
The theory of heat treatment is based on the fact that a change takes
place in the internal structure of metal by heating and cooling which
induces desired properties in it.
The rate of cooling is the major controlling factor. Rapid cooling the
metal from above the critical range, results in hard structure. Whereas
very slow cooling produces the opposite affect i.e. soft structure.
Successful heat treatment requires close control over all factors
affecting the heating and cooling of a metal.
This control is possible only when the proper equipment is available.
The properties of metal caused by heating
1. To soften metals
2. Refine grain structure
3. Improve machinability after forging and rolling
4. Improve grain size
5. Improve structure of weld
6. To reduce tensile strength
7. To ease machining
8. Relieve internal stresses
9. Refine grain size.
10. Increase or restore ductility and toughness
Thank you