CHAPTER 3

INTRODUCTION TO CRITICAL
THINKING
‘Critical Thinking means making reasoned
judgments’
• According to Beyer (1995):

a. Using criteria to judge the quality of something,

from a simple activity such as normal daily
activities to the conclusion of a research paper.

b. Critical Thinking is a disciplined manner of

thought that a person uses to evaluate the
validity of something (statement, new ideas &
research).
• According to Scriven & Paul (1996) & Angelo
(1995):

– Critical thinking as the intellectually disciplined

process of actively & skilfully conceptualising,
applying, analysing, synthesising & evaluating
information gathered from or generated by,
observation, experience, reflection, reasoning or
communication.

– “Critical thinking directly influences the capacity for

individuals to advance in effectively applying the
information to which they have been exposed”
• According to Glaser (1985) and Primack
(1986):

a. It seems important for us not only to learn to

think critically, but to teach critical thinking to
others as well.

b. This contention is significantly because for a

person to be successful in any field of living he
must have the ability to think critically.
c. He should be able to reason inductively &
deductively such as when criticising or
constructing ideas or solutions. These critical
thinking abilities are generally recognised as an
important & pervasive educational objective &
are considered a desirable outcome of all human
activities.
CRITICAL THINKING THEORIES

3 PERSPECTIVES
1. The Philosophical Perspective

• Ennis (1986), Henri (1991) & Garrison (1992),

Watson & Glaser (1980), Facione (1998), & Missimer
(1990) have focused their attentions upon the
requirements of formal logical systems of critical
thinking.

• Their theories represent the philosophical

perspective of critical thinking.
i) The Critical Thinking Process

• According to Ennis (1986), Henri (1991) & Garrison

(1992) they developed their theories of critical
thinking as a problem solving. The theories involved
four stages.
• The processes include:
a. Focusing & observing on a question or problem
b. Asking & answering questions for clarification of the
problem
c. Making & evaluating decisions / solutions
d. Deciding on an action
• The critical thinking dispositions suggested by
Ennis include:

1. Seeking a clear statement of the question

2. Seeking reasons
3. Trying to be well-informed, &
4. Trying to remain relevant to the main point
• Henri (1991) identifies four dimensions for analysing
problems which are participative, social, interactive,
cognitive & meta-cognitive. She thinks that critical
thinking is in the cognitive dimension.
• She suggests four processes of critical reasoning:

Elementary
classification

Inference

Judgment

Strategies
• As for Garrison (1992), critical thinkers move
through five stages:

1. Problem identifying
2. Defining it clearly
3. Exploring the problem & possible solutions
4. Evaluating their applicability
5. Integrating understanding with the existing
knowledge
Comparison among the critical thinking
processes of Ennis, Henri and Garrison
Ennis’s categories of critical thinking abilities:

1. Elementary Clarification
Focusing on a question, analysing arguments, asking
& answering questions of clarification

2. Basic Support
Judging the credibility of a source and observation
reports
3. Inference
Deducing & judging deductions, induction, making
& judging value judgments

4. Advanced classification
Defining terms and judging definitions, identifying
assumptions

5. Strategy and Tactics

Deciding on an action & interacting with others
Henri’s critical reasoning stages:

1. Elementary clarification
Observing or studying a problem, identifying its
elements, observing their linkages.

2. In-depth clarification
Analysing a problem to understand its underlying
values, beliefs & assumptions
3. Inference
Admitting or proposing an idea based on true
propositions

4. Judgement
Making decision, evaluations & criticism

5. Strategies
Application of solution following on choice or
decision
Garrison’s critical thinking stages:

1. Problem identification
Triggering event arouses interest in a problem

2. Problem definition
Define problem boundaries end & means

3. Problem Exploring
Deep understanding of situation of problem
4. Problem integration
Evaluation of alternative solutions and new ideas.

5. Problem integration
Acting upon understanding to validate knowledge
The Composite of Attitudes, Knowledge &
Skills:
• From the philosophy perspective: Watson & Glaser
(1980) view critical thinking as a composite of
attitudes, knowledge & skills. The composite include:

a. Attitudes of inquiry that involve an ability to

recognise the existence of problems
b. Knowledge of the nature of valid inferences,
abstractions & generalisation
c. Skills in employing & applying the above attitudes &
knowledge
According to Watson & Glaser, competency in
critical thinking is represented by certain
critical thinking abilities:

1. Inference
The ability to discriminate among degrees of truth
/falsity of inferences. An inference is a conclusion a
person can draw from certain observations or facts.

2. Recognition of assumptions
The ability to recognize assumptions. An
assumption is something taken for granted.
3. Deduction
The ability to determine whether certain conclusion
necessarily follow from information in given
statements or premises.

4. Interpretation
The ability to weigh evidence & come to
generalization or conclusion logically follows
beyond reasonable doubt from given information.
5. Evaluation of an argument
The ability to distinguish between arguments that
are strong & relevant & those that are weak or
irrelevant.

An argument is very strong if it is almost impossible

for the premises to be true and the conclusion false.

An argument is weak if it is likely that the premises

could be true & the conclusion is false.
An example of evaluation of argument.
1. Premises:
All cats like to eat fish. Garfield is a cat.

Conclusion:
Garfield likes to eat fish.

Strong argument:
It is impossible for the premises to be true & the
conclusion false.
2. Premises:
Mr. Lim is a bachelor.

Conclusion:
Mr. Lim was never married.

All bachelor are unmarried.

Weak argument:
Lim could have been divorced. It is likely that the
premises could be true an the conclusion false.
The Critical Thinking Model
• In model of critical thinking skills there are six core
critical thinking skills:

1. INTERPRETATION
Interpret is to comprehend and express the meaning /
significance of a wide variety of:
- experiences, situations, data, events, judgments,
conventions, beliefs, rules, procedures, or criteria.

- Interpretation includes sub-skills of categorization,

decoding significance & clarifying meaning.
2. ANALYSIS
Is to identify the actual relationships among
statements, questions, concepts, descriptions /
other forms of representation.

This is intended to express belief, judgement,

experiences, reasons, information / opinions.

It includes examining ideas, detecting arguments &

analysing arguments as sub-skills of analysis.

E.g. Identifying the similarities & differences

between two approaches to the solution of a given
problem
3. EVALUATION
Evaluation means to assess the credibility of
statements / other representations which are
accounts / descriptions of a person’s perception,
experience, situation, judgment, belief or opinion &
to assess the logical strength of the actual /
intended inferential relationships among
statements, descriptions, questions or other forms
of representation.

E.g. Comparing the strength and the weaknesses of

alternative interpretations.
4. INFERENCE
Inference means to identify & secure elements
needed to draw reasonable conclusions, to form
conjecture & hypothesis, to consider relevant
information & to deduce the consequences flowing
from data, statemetns, principles, evidence,
judgments, beliefs, opinions, concepts,
descriptions, questions/other form of
representations.

E.g. reading/identifying & securing the information

needed to formulate a synthesis from multiple
sources.
5. EXPLANATION
Explanation can be define as being able to state the
results of one’s reasoning.

It is to justify that reasoning in term of the

evidential, conceptual, methodological & contextual
considerations.

The sub-skills under explanation are stating results,

justifying procedures & presenting arguments.
6. SELF-REGULATION
Means self-consciously to monitor one’s cognitive
activities, the elements used in those activities &
the result deduced, particularly by applying skills in
analysis & evaluation to one’s own inferential
judgments with a view toward questioning,
confirming, validation or correcting either one’s
reasoning or one’s results.

The two sub skills under self-regulation are self-

examination & self-correction.
The House of Argument

• The three major features of the “House of

Arguments” are:
– Issue
– Reason
– Conclusion

• The author claims that the house provides a way to

visualise an argument & help us to see the argument
more clearly.
• If the structure of the house is well-supported then it
is a strong argument & represents a well constructed
critical thinking characteristics.

• However, if the reasons are weak, t en the house of

argument can collapse & it is a weak argument.
2. The Psychological perspective

• Sternbery (1986) & Cohen, Freeman and Wolf (1996)

are critical thinking experts who view critical thinking
from the psychological perspective.
• According to Sternberg, critical thinking
involves three kinds of thought:
1. Metacompontents
– The metacomponents include:
• Recognising that a problem exists

• Defining the nature of the problem

• Deciding on a set of steps for solving the problem

• Ordering these steps into a coherent strategy

• Deciding upon a form of mental representation for
information

• Allocating one’s time & resources in solving a problem

• Monitoring one’s solution to a problem as the

problem is being solved and

• Utilizing feedback regarding problem solving after

one's problems solving has been completed
2. Performance components
– Performance components are lower order, non-
executive processes used to execute the
instructions of the metacomponents & provide
feedback to them.

– Performance components vary by domain of

performance for e.g. inductive reasoning,
deductive reasoning & spatial visualisation.
3. Knowledge-acquisition
– Knowledge-acquisition components are the
processes used to conceptualize information.

– Three components:
1. Selective encoding (involves screening relevant from
irrelevant information)
2. Selective combination (involves putting together the
relevant information in a consistent & organised way)
3. Selective comparison (involves relating old, previously
known information to new information)
The recognition and metacognition model

• According to Cohen, Freeman and Wolf (1996), they

believe that in order to be critical thinking, one must
have two pre-requisite skills which refer to
recognitional skill & metacognitive skill.
1. Recognitionally skilled.
• They are able to recognize a large number of
situations as familiar & to retrieve an appropriate
response.

• In these situations, critical thinkers act quickly &

effectively on “intuition”.

• Recognition can fail / midlead, however in

unfamiliar, novel & uncertain situations.
• Critical thinkers must switch from intuition (right
atmosphere function) to analysis (left atmosphere
function)

• They must break the problem down into component,

make judgment and then put them back together
again by a systematic formula that leads to an
“optima” solution.
2. Metocognitively skilled.
• Metocognition is thinking about one’s own thinking.

• Metacognition is being aware of one’s thinking as

one performs specific tasks and then using this
awareness to control what he doing.

• The process of critical thinking is about the results

of recognition can be stopped at anytime and
immediate action taken on the best solution.
The Model of Recognition and Mecognition

1. Recognitional Processing
– When a problem is presented, in most situations
decisions are made by rapid recognitional
processing.

– At this stage, in recognising familiar situations,

actions may be activated. If the situations are
unfamiliar, no immediate action will be taken and
one will wait & think more about the problem.
2. The Quick Test
– Is a control function that decides whether / not
to act immediately on the recognitional solution
/ to think more.

– If the stakes are high, time available & the

situation is unfamiliar or uncertain then the
initial recognition response may be inhibited & a
cycle of critical thinking begins.
3. Critiquing and Correcting
– Critiquing & correcting process of critical thinking
involve looking for qualitative appropriate ways.

– One may find gaps (not enough reason to choose

one conclusions / the other), conflict (reasons to
choose both conclusions) / unreliable
assumptions (reasons that depend on
unexamined premises).
3. The Educational Perspective
• One of the most influential of the critical
thinking models is Bloom’s Taxonomy of
Higher Thinking.

1. Bloom’s Taxonomy of Higher Thinking

– Critical thinking is synonymous with high level of
thinking, especially ‘evaluation’. The ability to
evaluate is fundamental to critical thinking.
• The process involve:
– The evaluation of the ideas
– Solutions
– Arguments
– Evidences.

• In Bloom’s Taxonomy of Higher Thinking, the

evaluation skill is the highest level of thinking skills.

• Bloom list a set of six levels from the simplest to the

most complex level of critical thinking.
• The list begin with:
– Knowledge & moves on the comprehension
– Application
– Analysis
– Synthesis
– Evaluation

• The evaluation skill is the goal of the learning &

thinking processes.

• Bloom’s theory has been widely accepted & taught in

thinking skill courses in all fields of education
programmes.
• This theory giving learners practice in some of the
lower levels of critical thinking skills before moving
them on to the more difficult tasks of the higher
thinking processes.

• According to Bloom one must master a level thinking

before one can move on to the next level or stage.

• The reason is we cannot ask a person to evaluate if

he does not know it, does not understand it, cannot
interpret it, cannot apply it & cannot analyse it.
The six levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy
Evaluation (Judging and evaluating)

Synthesis (Putting Together)

Analysis (Taking Part)

Application (Making use of)

Comprehension (Interpreting &

understanding)

Knowledge (Remembering & retaining)

2. The Critical Thinking Cyclic Model
• Zebra (2001), suggests that a paradigm shift from
the traditional method is necessary in how we
teach students.

• This shift involves a revised model / a new

sequence of components that should be used to
help students engage biology.

• This model is an educational model of critical

thinking process.
• Each cycle of the model begins with a focus / careful
observation of problem, to a question/a hypothesis
proposed.

• Next is the data generating stage, where new content

is collected.
 The Critical Thinking Cyclic Model

Focus or observation
- Careful observation &
engagement

Decision / Description
Question or Hyphothesis
of the Solution
– Questioning about how
- Use public, self
the problem can be
knowledge or
solved
evidence

Analysis &
Deliberation Data Generating
Component - New content is
- Weigh relative merits collected
of content & value
CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS

The Critical Thinking Abilities

1. Ennis’s critical thinking abilities
• Ennis identifies twelve abilities of critical thinking.

• These twelve abilities indicate ways of avoiding making a

mistake in evaluating when selecting the only right answer.

• By using the terms “meaningful”, “clear”, “consistent”,

“logical”, “precise” following the rules “accurate”, “justified”,
“relevant”, “assumption” and “true”, one can think more
precisely & critically in the evaluation process of critical
thinking.
Critical thinking abilities Question related
Grasping the meaning of a statement It is meaningful?
Judging whether there is ambiguity in reasoning It is clear?
Judging whether statements contradict each other It is consistent?
Judging whether a conclusion follows necessarily It is logical?
Judging whether a statement is specific enough It is precise?
Judging whether a statement applies a principle It is following rule?
Judging whether an observation is reliable It is accurate?
Judging whether an inductive conclusion is warranted It is justified?
Judging whether the problem has been identified It is relevant?
Judging whether something is an assumption It is taken for
granted?
Judging whether a definition is adequate It is well-defined?
Judging whether a statement taken as authority is It is true?
acceptable
2. Wade’s critical thinking skills
• Wade (1995) observed critical thinkers who are “fair-minded”.
• He identified eight skills of critical thinking.
• Fair-minded critical thinking involves the abilities of:
– Asking questions
– Defining the problem
– Examining evidence
– Analyzing assumptions and biases
– Avoiding emotional reasoning
– Avoiding oversimplification
– Considering other interpretations
– Tolerating ambiguity
 Defining
Problem
Examining
Asking Evidence
Question

Analysing Wade’s critical Avoiding

Assumptions oversimplification
thinking skills
and Biases

Considering
Other Tolerating
Avoiding
Interpretation Ambiguity
Emotional
Reasoning
3. Silverman and Smith Critical Thinking
abilities:
• According to Silverman & Smith, one demonstrates the ability
to think critically by being able to:
– Analyse complex issues & make informed decision
– Synthesise information in order to arrive at reasoned conclusions
– Evaluate the logic, validity & relevance of data
– Solve challenging problems
– Question the assumptions of those in authority & conventional
wisdom
– Distinguish between observation & inference
– Identify the assumptions in any arguments & judge their validity
– Identify the nature of the reasoning being used. Know when inductive
/ deductive reasoning is required.
Aspect of Critical Thinking

1. DISPOSITION
• Critical thinker are open-minded, value fair-
mindedness, respect evidence & reasoning, respect
clarity & precision, look at different points of view
and will change positions when reason leads them to
do so.
2. CRITERIA
• The conditions that must be met for something to
be judged as believable.

• Although the argument can be made that each

subject area has different criteria, some standards
apply to all subjects.

• An assertion must be based on relevant, accurate,

facts, on credible sources, precise, unbiased, free
from logical fallacies, logically consistent & strongly
reasoned.
3. ARGUMENT
• Argument is a statement or proposition with
supporting evidence. Critical thinking involves
identifying, evaluating & constructing arguments.

4. REASONING
• Reasoning is the ability to infer a conclusion from
one / multiple premises. To do so requires
examining logical relationship among statements /
data.
5. POINT OF VIEW
• The way one views the world which shapes one’s
construction of meaning.
• In a search for understanding, critical thinkers view
phenomena from many different points of view.

6. PROCEDURES FOR APPLYING

• Critical thinking makes use of many procedures.
• These procedures include asking questions, making
judgments and identifying assumptions.
Implications of Critical Thinking Theories

• The theories of critical thinking manifest that critical thinking

involves skills of analysis, interpretation, inference,
explanation & evaluation.
• It implies to promote & enhance critical thinking in learners,
the style of passive teaching & learning must be shifted to an
“active” one.
• Besides, students are encourage to work with each other in
small discussion groups after major points / demonstration
during lectures.
• Student will be able to process the new information, connect
it to previously learned topics & practice asking questions that
promote further critical thinking.
Strategies to promote critical thinking:

1. Improve Critical Thinking –”Building A House of

Argument”
• The process of building a house of argument can be
used as an effective strategy to promote critical
thinking.

The Process of Critical Thinking:

A) An issue arise
- an issue is a statement of a problem
- e.g. Whether you should drive over 120 km p/h.
B) Set up reasons
- This stage involves information & reason
collection. The reasons are claims to defend/to
justify a belief in a conclusion.
- e.g. The condition of your car is bad / the tyres of
the car are bald / you may meet with an accident

C) Search for supporting evidence

- Four types of evidence: scientific, philosophic,
statistical and research.
- E.g. Statistic shows that there are more accidents
& fatalities when people drive at / above 120 km
p/h.
D) Making conclusions
- A conclusion is the decision that the thinker has made about
an issue. It is often preceded by words such as “in conclusion”
or “therefore:.
- in the process of drawing a conclusion, the ability to make
inferences is important.
- Two factors are necessary for a conclusion to be warranted.
i) The reason must be true
ii) The conclusion must follow from the reasons

• E.g. therefore, you should try not to drive at or above

120km p.h.
E) Recognizing assumptions
– Assumptions lie beneath the argument & constitute the
basement of the statement of critical argument
– The terms commonly used to expose an assumption are
“assumes”, “presume”, “presupposes”
– “I am assuming that…”, “The presumption is that…”, “The
presupposition is that…”
F) Explore the implication
• Implication is the possible outcome that follows from an
argument.
• For example, the conclusion that “you should try not to drive
at or above 120 km p.h.” may cause the attention & discussion
of other people & the implications / outcomes of these
discussion might be favourable / unfavourable.
• When the implications are positive, they function as
additional reasons for the argument.
• However, if the implications are negative or unclear, they may
be offered as a major reason in a counter argument.
2. Improve Critical thinking through Questioning
• Critical thinking can be enhanced through critical
questioning.
• Questions eliciting thoughtful wording &
construction are most likely to produce higher level
thinking in the students.

a. The Cooperative Questioning Process

• Learners can hear other perspectives, analyze
claims, evaluate evidence and explain & justify their
reasoning.
The circle of cooperative questioning model
2. Teaching (10-20 minutes)
current brain research suggest
1. Introduction of general that “mental breaks” every 20
teaching/learning goals minutes keep learners alert & on
task

6. Teachers repeat the

3. Students work together to
process with another related
answer questions.
topic

5. Reports from merged 4. Couples of students merge

groups report to class to discuss their answers
b. Critical Questioning Strategies
• Examples of these strategies are the Taxonomy of
Socratic Questioning and Paul and Elder’s Standards
Question.

The Taxonomy of Socratic Questioning

• Stimulate interaction between the teacher &
learner.
• Comprises six categories of Socratic questions.
An example of the Taxonomy of Socratic Questioning

Categories of Socratic questions Examples of question

1. Questions of clarification What do you mean by _______?

2. Questions that probe
assumptions
3. Questioning that probe Reasons
and Evidence
4. Questions about Viewpoint or
Perspectives
5. Question that Probe Implications What are you implying by that?
and Consequences
6. Questions about the question
What is your main point?
What are you assuming?
What could we assume instead?
Do you have any evidence for
that?
How can we find out?
What does this question assume?
Why is this question important?
 The Standard Questions
• Paul and Elder (1999) have identified eight standard questions
students should learn in promoting critical thinking.
Standard Questions

Clarify Could you elaborate further?

Could you illustrate what you mean?
Accuracy How could we check on that?
How could we find out if that is true?
Precision Could you be more specific?
Could you give me more details?
Relevance How does that relate to the problem?
How does that bear on the question?
Depth What factors make this a difficult problem?

Breadth Do we need to consider another point of view?

Logic Does all this make a sense together?

Significance Is this the most important problem to consider?

3. Arrange Classroom Space to Encourage Interaction
• Teachers should first create a comfortable
environment for interaction & discussions.
• The classroom space should be designed to
facilitate the activity of critical thinking.
• The arrangement of the classroom should also
facilitate division of students into small groups for
discussion / problem solving exercise.
4. Allow Time for Reflection or Interaction
• Teachers should allow a little time for reflection or
interaction.

• Allowing silent time can prompt and deepen critical

thought of the students.

• Students need time to mull over & digest all the

new information, concepts and methodologies
being presented to them & especially during the
periods of questioning.
5. Begin Class with a Problem and Finish Class with a
Brief Evaluate Exercise
• At the beginning of a class, teaches can ask some
question on a problem related to the topic for that
day.

• At the end of the class, a brief evaluative exercise

about the most important thing they have learned
should be done. In this way, students have more
opportunities for critical thinking.
BLOCKAGES TO CRITICAL
THINKING
1. Unable to Maintain Critical Thinking Attitudes

• To be critical thinking, ones needs certain strong

attitudes.
• A critical thinking attitude is a strong mental stance
with which a person approaches events & issues.
• Critical thinking is eliminated when a person
approaches events & issues.
• Critical thinking is eliminated when a person can’t
struggle to maintain the following attitudes:
– Intellectual Curiosity
– Open-mindedness
– Strong sense of critical questioning and reasoning
2. Strong Personal Experience

• There is a tendency for a person to trust his own

observations & experiences when he is arguing,
judging & evaluating ideas.
• This blockages will lead to a bias when he is judging
/evaluating solutions/ideas of a problem.
• To overcome this mental blockage when judging /
evaluating ideas, one should not base decisions on
only one experience but refer to a few examples.
3. Stereotypes

• The tendency to stereotypes is another blockage of

critical thinking.
• A stereotype thinker approaches any topic with
certain preliminary belief as habits of mind.
• When someone stereotypes, he believes that a
particular group has a specific set of characteristics.
• E.g. The white people is more intelligent than the
black people.
4. Oversimplifying

• Oversimplifying means failing to consider that there are other

characteristics in addition to those in which we are interested
in that might affect the thoughts under observation.
• Most of us prefer simplicity to complexity.
• Decision & situation with simple answers permit us to move
on rapidly & confidently to the next topic without investing
much mental energy.
• Oversimplifying can limit our critical thinking. Whenever we
fail to consider that there are other perspectives we cut
ourselves off from potential insights.
5. Strong Psychological Needs

• In arguing and evaluating ideas, one’s reaction may too often

be guided by one psychological need.
• If certain things are true & good for the person, he/she feels
better.
• For instance, when evaluating ideas of a problem, one may
need certain conclusion to be true & these conclusion may be
wrong but they reflect his personal psychological needs,
• Because one wishes, certain conclusions to be true one may
reason as if they are true emotionally despite strong evidence
to the contrary.