Basic Environmental Engineering

(ChE4103)
6. Air pollution

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 6. Air pollution
6.1. Definition of Air Pollution
 Definition: Air pollution is the presence of
any substance (solid, liquid droplets and gases)
in the atmosphere in such a concentration
that it may or may tend to injure human,
plants, microbial life, properties and the
ecosystem.
 The substances dispersed in the atmosphere
are called pollutants.
 Air pollutants are generally defined as those
substances, which alter the composition of
the natural atmosphere.

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6.2. Classification, source and properties of air pollutants
 Air pollutants can be classified into two major groups as
primary and secondary.
 Primary Air Pollutants enter into the atmosphere directly
from their sources.
 These are: Sulfur oxides (SOx), Nitrogen oxides (NOx), Carbon
monoxide, Carbon dioxide (CO2), Volatile organic compounds
(VOC), Particulate matter (PM), Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
and Ammonia.
 When primary pollutants (oxides of nitrogen and volatile
organic compounds) interact under the influence of sunlight
(atmospheric photochemical reaction) to produce a mixture of
hundreds of different and hazardous secondary pollutants
called photochemical smog/oxidants.
 Secondary pollutants include Nitrogen dioxide, Ground level
ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs, Peroxyacetyl nitrate
(PAN) similarly formed from NOx and VOCs, Formaldehyde,
Acid rain, Hydrogen peroxide and etc.

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 Cont…
 On the basis of physical state, pollutants can be categorized as
gaseous pollutants and particulate matter.
6.2.1. Gaseous pollutants
 Sulfur oxides (SOx): When sulfur is exposed to oxygen at
high temperatures during fossil fuel combustion, oil refining, or
metal smelting specially SO2 gas is formed. SO2 dissolves in
cloud droplets and oxidizes to form SO3 and sulfuric acid
(H2SO4), which can fall to Earth as acid rain or snow or form
sulfate aerosol particles in the atmosphere.
 Nitrogen oxides (NOx): NOx sources can be thermal
NOx or fuel combustion. Thermal NOx is created by
oxidation of atmospheric N2 when T > 1000 K. The other
sources of NOx are from the fuel combustion which contains
nitrogen. In the atmosphere, NOx reacts with volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) and carbon monoxide to produce ground
level ozone through a complicated chain reaction mechanism.
NOx is eventually oxidized to nitric acid (HNO3).

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 Carbon monoxide: The incomplete
Cont…
combustion may be
arising from insufficient O2, low temperature, short residence
time and poor mixing. The major source of carbon monoxide
emission (~ 77%) is motor vehicle exhaust. When carbon
monoxide is inhaled, it binds to hemoglobin in blood to form
carboxyhemoglobin, reducing the oxygen carrying capacity,
brain function reduced, heart rate increased at lower levels,
asphyxiation occurs at higher levels.
 Carbon dioxide: Carbon dioxide emissions are largely due to
the combustion of fossil fuels in electric power generation,
transportation and industrial sectors. The environmental effect
of CO2 is that it contributes to the greenhouse gas emission
results for increment of global warming.
 Ozone (O3): It is a colorless, poisonous gas with a sharp, cold,
irritating odor. The human-caused ozone in the troposphere is
a secondary pollutant because it is produced by the reaction of
primary pollutants, nitrogen oxides and in the presence
of sunlight.

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 6.2.2. Particulate matters (PM)
 Definition: Particulate matter is the general
term used for a mixture of solid particles and
liquid droplets found in the air.
 Particulate can be composed of inert or
extremely reactive materials ranging in size
from 100µm down to 0.1µm and even less.
PM2.5 describes the “fine” particles that are
less than or equal to 2.5 micrometers in
diameter. “Coarse” particles refer to particles
greater than 2.5, but less than or equal to 10
micrometers in diameter. PM10 refers to all
particles less than or equal to 10 micrometers
in diameter.

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 Cont…
Particulates may be further classified as follows:
 Aerosol: suspension of fine particles in a gas. These are generally
smaller than 1µm.
 Dust: Fine solid particles. Dust consists particles of the size ranging
from 0.01 to 1µm. They have large settling velocities and are removed
from the air by gravity and other inertial processes.
 Fog: Condensed water vapor in the air at or near ground level or
suspension of liquid particles.
 Fume: Solid particles (dust) formed by the condensation of vapors,
sublimation, distillation, calcinations or other chemical reactions.
Fume particles from 0.03 to 1.0µm in diameter and are normally
released from the chemical or metallurgical processes.
 Mist: small liquid droplets in air. These liquid droplets are generally
smaller than 10µm, which are formed by condensation in the
atmosphere or are released from industrial operations, for example,
the formation of sulfuric acid mist.
 Smoke: Waste from incomplete combustion expelled with the air
stream. It is a mass of tiny particles in the air that rise up from
something burning usually suspended in a gas. It contains fine
particles of the size ranging from 0.01 to 1.0µm.
 Smog: a mixture of fog and smoke or other air born pollutants such
as exhaust fume.
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 6.2.3. Sources of Air Pollutants
 The sources of air pollution can be classified into two
major categories which are: natural causes and those
which are brought about by human activities/causes.
 Human activity (Anthropogenic) pollutants are
released mostly by burning of different kinds of fuel.
This source further classified as stationary sources (such
as smoke stacks of power plants, manufacturing
facilities, municipal waste incinerators) and mobile
sources as motor vehicles, aircraft etc.
 Whereas, natural sources of air pollutants arise
naturally are wind/dust storm, methane, emitted by the
digestion of cattle, radon gas from radioactive decay
within the Earth's crust, smoke and carbon monoxide
from wildfires, volcanic activity, which produce sulfur,
chlorine, and ash particulates.

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6.3. Harmful Effects of Air Pollution on Materials
The health effect of air pollution;
 Nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide and ozone irritate the air ways
of the lungs increasing the symptoms of those suffering from
lung diseases.
 Particulate matter can cause inflammation and worsening of
heart and lung disease
 Carbon monoxide prevent the uptake of oxygen by the blood
which leads to heart disease
The air pollution affects the materials in following ways:
 Abrasion (loss of material by wind with coarser particles).
 Corrosion (acidic effect of rain water).
 Deposition and removal (adhering substances like PM and
removal of material by rusting.
 Direct chemical attack (effect of gases like SO2).
 Indirect chemical attack (action of acid or its fumes on stones
like marble, corrosion of reinforcement due to diffusion of
gases in RCC).

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 Air pollution sinks
 Air pollutions sinks are process by which air
contaminants are consumed or removed
from the atmosphere.
 There are three major mechanisms
 Biological
 Mechanical
 Photochemical

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 6.4. Sampling and Measurement of Air Quality
 The ability to assess the air quality of a region will
depend on accurate and representative data
describing existing conditions and dispersion
models, which can be used to better predict future
pollution levels. In general, ambient air monitoring
networks are typically used to:
a. characterize local, regional, and national air quality
conditions
b. assess health impacts
c. assess effectiveness of control programs & help
form the basis for new control programs
d. assess source impacts provide information to the
public

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6.4.1. Particulate matter sampling
Filtration (high volume sampler)
 A high-volume sampler is a device used to sample
particulate matter in which pollutants are drawn
through a glass fiber filter using a vacuum motor to
draw the air. In these methods, a known volume of air is
drawn through the sampler and the particulate fraction
of interest (TSP, PM10, or PM2.5) is collected.
 The mass of particulate matter subsequently is
determined gravimetrically and the average ambient
concentration over the sampling period is calculated in
terms of µg/m3 of air. The sampling time is generally
24hrs and during this time over 2000m3 of air is sucked
through the filter. The collected material can be
analyzed to determine the identity and quantity of
inorganic (metal) and organic compounds present in the
TSP (i.e., SPM) sample.

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Example 6.1:
Determine the total suspended particulate matter (TSP) concentration at actual sampling
conditions from the following sampling and analysis data.
 Mass of filter before sampling=3.182 g
 Mass of filter after sampling=3.455 g
 Ambient temperature=20℃ or 293 K
 Ambient pressure=740 mm Hg
 Starting flow rate=1.70 m3/min
 Ending flow rate=1.41 m3/min
 Sampling period (t)=24 hours
Solution:
Qact = (initial actual flow rate + final actual flow rate)/2
= (1.70 m3/min+1.41 m/min)/2 =1.555m3/min
Vact= Qact*t= 1.555m3/min*24hr*60min/hr=2239.2m3
Mass of TSP collected= 3.455 g -3.182 g=0.273g=273,000µg
TSPact concentration= mass of TSP/Vact=273,000µg/2239.2m3=122 µg/ m3
Convert the results to standard conditions
TSPstd=TSPact*( Pstd/Pact)(Tact/Tstd) = 122 µg/ m3*(760mm/740mm)(293K/298K)
= 123 µg/ m3
Or correct the volume to standard conditions
Vstd= Vact*(Pact/Pstd)(Tstd/Tact) =2239.2m3*(740mm/760mm)(298K/293K)=2217.48 m3
TSPstd=273,000 µg/2217.48 m3 =122 µg/ m3

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 Cont…
 Inertial Sampling: The inertial collection process is
subdivided into two main types: impaction and
impingement. The distinction is made by the manner in
which the sample material is retained in the sampling
device.
Impaction: Impaction devices collect and retain particles
from an aerosol stream on a collecting surface. The
collecting surface is removed from the instrument and the
sample analysis is, in many cases, performed directly on
the collecting surface. Particle adhesion is caused primarily
by electrostatic attraction and by molecular surface
phenomena known as Van der Waals forces. Some loss of
large particles occurs with high aerosol velocities.
Impingement: Impingers are most commonly used in
collecting dusts, mists, and fumes in the evaluation of
occupational health hazards. In addition to collecting
soluble gases and particulate matter, the Greenburg-Smith
impinger efficiently collects insoluble particles that are
greater than 2µm in diameter.
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 Cont…
 Gravitational Sampling refers to the
amount of precipitation (solid or liquid) which
reaches the ground over a stated period of
time. The sampling time periods reported for
total solids are 24 hours or more, and as
much as a 30-day time period.
 Dust fall Bucket or Jar had been one of the
earliest sampling devices for particulate
matter in the atmosphere. The dustfall bucket
is used mostly as a bulk collector for wet
(rainwater) and dry (dust) deposition. Results
are calculated by filtering the liquid, with
subsequent weighing of the remaining solids.

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 Cont…
 Electrostatic Precipitators separation of
particles from an air stream using electrostatic
forces. There are two types of electrostatic
precipitators; wet and dry. The wet type retrieves
wet particles, including acid, oil, resin, and tar, from
the exhaust gas. The dry type, on the other hand, is
used to remove dry particles like dust and ash.
 Thermal Precipitators collect particles from an
air stream by passing the air sample through a
narrow channel having a significant temperature
gradient perpendicular to the direction of flow. The
particles move towards the decreased temperature
surface and deposit on it, allowing for subsequent
analysis of the collected particles.
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 6.4.2. Gaseous pollutant sampling
 Grap sampling: In grab sampling technique, the sample is
collected by filling an evacuated flask or an inflatable bag.
Plastic bags have been widely used for grab sampling and
for storage before analysis. Bag sampling is subjected to
losses caused by moisture condensation or diffusion
through the walls of the bag. This loss can be minimized by
performing the analysis immediately following collection.
 Absorption technique: Absorption separates the
desired pollutants from air either through direct solubility
in the absorbing medium or by chemical reaction. In
absorption techniques, the air sample is bubbled through a
liquid so that the pollutant is absorbed by chemical
reaction. The absorber column can be an impinger, an
atomizing scrubber, a fritted glass scrubber, or some type
of packed column. After absorption, the liquid reactant is
analyzed to determine the concentration of the
component proportional to the original gaseous pollutant.
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 Cont…
 Adsorption Technique: in adsorption, the
sample of air is passed through a packed column
containing finely divided solid adsorbent on
surface which the pollutants are retained and
concentrated. Typical solids employed for the
adsorption are activate carbon, activated
alumina (Al2O3), silica gel (SiO2), and
molecular sieves with very large surface area.
After adsorption, the sample gases are desorbed
for analysis. Desorption may be accomplished by
heating the adsorbent to volatilize the trapped
material or by washing it with a liquid solvent.

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 Cont…
 Condensation/Freeze-out sampling: In
freeze-out sampling a series of cold traps, which
are maintained at progressively lower
temperature, are used to draw the air sample
whereby the pollutants are condensed. Although
the method is potentially useful for trapping a
large number of pollutants for an analysis, it is
inconvenient to assemble the freeze-out traps. It
also causes the problem of accumulation of ice
resulting from water vapor condensation, which
leads to eventual plugging of the system, and is
not generally used for regular sampling purpose.

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 Cont…
Stack sampling
 Sampling of gas directly from a stack is
necessary to evaluate compliance with
emission standards and to determine the
efficiency of air pollution control equipment.
Stack sampling is carried out by diverting part
of the gas stream through a sampling train.
 The train consists of a nozzle placed in the
gas stream, a sample probe through which the
sample is drawn at different traverses,
particulate and gas collection devices, a flow
measuring device, and a prime mover such as
a vacuum pump or an ejector.

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 Particulate Measurement
 In concentration methods, the PM
concentration can be in mass (m), number
(N) and surface area (S). These instruments
are based in different measuring principles,
and can be gravimetric, optical,
microbalance, and electrical charge.

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 Cont…
 Gravimetric Method: In the gravimetric method,
the particle mass concentration is determined by
weighing the filters before and after the sampling
period. The gravimetric method is based on filters
and Cascade impactors. It can collect particles and
evaluate their concentration.
 Optical Methods: In the optical detection
methods, aerosol particles are lit by a light beam
and irradiate this light in all directions (scattering).
Part of this light is simultaneously transformed in
other energy forms (absorption). Optical
instruments used for measuring particle
concentration, in real time, can be based on the
principles of scattering, absorption, and light
extinction.

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 Cont…
 Microbalance Methods: It is the method when the particles
are collected, over the surface of an oscillatory microbalance
element, those microbalances use the alteration of the resonance
frequency to determine the PM. There are two main
measurement instruments that use the microbalance method:
Tapered Element Oscillation Microbalance (TEOM) and
Quartz Crystal Microbalance (QCM). TEOM measures PM
mass based on the alteration of resonance frequency of a
tapered quartz wand, due to the accumulation of particles in a
sampling filter, which is connected to the wand tip. TEOM is a
well-established instrument when there is a need for
measurements of PM10 and PM2.5 in real time during biomass
combustion. Whereas, the quartz crystal has a piezoelectric
property of changing its resonance frequency when there is a
small addition of mass in its surface. Particles in QCMs are
deposited by electrostatic precipitation in a fine quartz crystal
resonator.

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 Cont…
 Microscopy: Aerosol sampling for analysis of
particle size, in a microscope, generally involves
collection of particles directly from filters followed
by filter preparation to improve visibility. Besides
the dimensions of solid particles, electronic
microscopy also examines their morphology.
 Impactor: Impactors are instruments for
measuring size distribution in mass, which working
principle is gravimetry, with multiple impact stages;
in some equipment, multiple orifices are found. The
most used impactors are the cascade type, which
operate based on the inertial classification of
particles.

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 6.4.5. Gaseous pollutant measurement
 Bubbler Method: In this method, the air sample is
bubbled through a solution that reacts chemically with
the particular gaseous pollutant being measured. The
concentration is then measured with further wet
chemical techniques. The pararosaniline technique for
measuring SO2, which is a standard method for
measuring atmospheric SO2. For example, in SO2
measuring, air is bubbled through a solution of
tetrachloromercurate (TCM). The SO2 and TCM
combine to form a complex that then is reacted with
pararosaniline to form a colored solution. The intensity
of the color is proportional to the SO2 concentration,
absorbs light at wavelength 560 pm, and can be
measured with a colorimeter or spectrophotometer. A
similar colorimetric technique, for measuring ammonia
concentration, is described.

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 Cont…
 Gas chromatography is a newer and very useful
second-generation measurement method,
particularly since trapping the pollutant in a
bubbler is not necessary. Long sampling times are
not needed, and the air sample can usually be
introduced directly into the gas chromatograph.
 Nondispersive infrared spectrophotometry
(nondispersive IR): used for measurement of
CO, including CO measurement for routine
automobile inspection and maintenance. Like all
asymmetric gas molecules, CO absorbs at the
specific infrared frequencies that correspond to
molecular vibrational and rotational energy levels.

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 6.5. Transport and Dispersion of Air Pollutants

 The behavior of pollutants released to the

atmosphere is subjected to diverse and
complex environmental factors associated
with meteorology and topography.
 Meteorology involves the physics, chemistry,
and dynamics of the atmosphere and
includes many direct effects of the
atmosphere on the earth’s surface, ocean,
and life. Topography refers to both the
natural and man-made features of the
earth’s surface.

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 6.5.1. Meteorology
 Air Pollution meteorology studies how
pollutants are delivered and dispersed into
the ambient air.
 The meteorological elements that have
the most direct and significant effects on
the distribution of air pollutants are wind
speed and direction, solar radiation,
stability, and precipitation.

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 6.5.2. Wind speed and direction
 Air movement associated with the horizontal motion
of the atmosphere is commonly called wind and
significantly affects pollutant concentration.
 In general, the higher the wind’s velocity, the lower the
pollutant concentration will be.
 In this sense, wind speed not only hastens pollutant
dispersion, but also dilutes it.
 Another important factor of air pollution transport
and dispersion is wind direction.
 Analysis of seasonal wind patterns helps industrial
planners to locate sources of air pollution in optimal
locations in order to minimize their effect upon
surrounding communities or the environment.

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 6.5.3. Atmospheric Stability & lapse rate
 While wind speed and direction generally relate to the
horizontal movement of air, atmospheric stability relates to
the forces that move air vertically.
 The mechanisms that are specifically responsible for the
vertical movement of air are atmospheric temperature (by
conduction and convection) and pressure.
 A parcel of air, for example, that is warmer than the
surrounding air masses will expand, rise and cool.
 As the air expands, it decreases in both temperature and
pressure.
 A parcel of cool air, however, behaves in the opposite manner.
 The temperature in the troposphere decreases with height is
described as the lapse rate.
 On average this decrease is –0.65°C/100 m and is stated as
the normal lapse rate.

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 Cont…
 Dry adiabatic lapse rate: The rate at which dry air
cools as it rises and is independent of the ambient air
temperature or it is a function only of the elevation.
This rate of heating or cooling of parcel of air is
1°C/100m.
 Super-adiabatic conditions: prevail when the air
temperature drops more than 1°C/100 m)
 Neutral stability: When the ambient lapse rate and
the dry adiabatic lapse rate are exactly the same
 Sub-adiabatic conditions: prevail when the air
temperature drops at a rate less than 1°C/100 m.
 Inversion: when the air temperature actually increases
with altitude and a layer of warm air exists over a layer
of cold air.

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6.5.4. Plume shapes and atmospheric stability
Five types of air pollution plumes are looping, fanning, coning, lofting and
fumigating plumes which illustrate the relationship between atmospheric stability
and pollutant emissions.
 Looping plumes: Pollution that is released into an unstable atmosphere
forms looping plumes. Rapid changes in temperature and pressure may result
in plumes that appear billowing and puffy. While unstable conditions are
usually favorable for pollutant dispersion, high concentrations of air pollution
forced down by cooling air can be harmful if trapped at ground level. This can
occur on sunny days with light to moderate winds, which combine with rising
and sinking air to cause the stack gases to move up and down in a wavy
pattern producing a looping plume.
 Coning plumes: Neutral or slightly unstable conditions create a coning
plume that is distinguished by large billows or puffs of pollutants. Coning
plumes are typically formed on partly cloudy days when there is an alternate
warming and cooling of the atmosphere. Warm gases released into cool,
ambient air mix, expand, and rise into the upper atmosphere.
 Fanning plumes: A fanning plume occurs during stable conditions and is
characterized by long, flat streams of pollutant emissions. Because
atmospheric pressure is stable, there is neither

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 Cont…
 Lofting plumes: When the atmosphere is relatively stable, warm air remains above
cool air and creates an inversion layer. Pollutants released below the inversion layer
will remain trapped at ground level and, in the absence of any atmospheric instability,
prevent the upward transport of the pollutant. When there is little or no vertical
mixing, pollutants tend to form in high concentrations at ground level. When
conditions are unstable or neutral above the inversion layer, stack gases above that
level form a lofting plume that can effectively disperse the pollutant into the upper
atmosphere.
 Fumigating plumes: In the early morning, if the plume is released just below the
inversion layer, a very serious air pollution episode could develop. When pollutants
are released below the inversion layer, gaseous emissions quickly cool and descend to
ground level. This condition is known as fumigation and results in a high concentration
of pollution that can be damaging to both humans and the environment alike. This
atmospheric condition characterizes the most destructive type of air pollution episode
possible
Topography
 The primary significance of topography causes various circulations. These circulations
can contribute either favorably or unfavorably to the transport and dispersion of the
pollutants.
 Valleys: As cool, dense air descends into a valley, large populations may be put at
great risk for excessive exposure to pollutants. When this natural flow of cool air is
accompanied by a temperature inversion, the effect upon human health can be
catastrophic. In some valleys, the inversion layer can be several hundred meters thick,
resulting in air pollution being trapped at ground level.

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 Cont…
 Mountains: Areas on the windward side of mountain ranges can expect
added precipitation due to the forced rising, expansion, and cooling of the
moving air mass with resultant release of available moisture. This increased
precipitation serves to increase the removal of the pollutants.
 Lakes and Oceans: Air that is located over land heats more rapidly than
lakes and oceans, which absorbs more heat, but at a slower rate. As the
heated air rises into the upper atmosphere, it cools and tends to migrate
toward other cold air masses, most of which are found over large bodies of
water. This cycle begins as a warm parcel of air settles over water, rapidly
cools, and creates a weak circulation cell. The cycle is completed during
hours of darkness as sea breezes recycle air back toward the cooling
landmasses.
 Man-made surfaces: The increased roughness of the surface created by the
widespread distribution of buildings throughout a city can significantly
enhance the turbulence of the airflow over the city, thereby improving the
dispersion of the pollutants emitted. But at the same time the concrete, stone,
and brick buildings and asphalt streets of the city act as a heat reservoir for the
radiation received from the sun during the day. This, plus the added heat from
nighttime space heating during the cool months of the year, creates a
temperature and pressure differential between the city and the surrounding
rural area so that a local circulation inward to the city is developed. The
circulation tends to concentrate the pollutants in the city. This phenomenon
called the ‘‘urban heat island effect.’’

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 Air Pollutants Dispersion Modeling
 Pollutant dispersion modeling was created as a
comprehensive means of viewing the results of
these complex interactions, collecting data
attributable to various elements, both natural and
manmade, and estimating the amount of ground-
level pollution at various distances from the source.
 Air pollutants dispersion models can be
represented by Box Model,
Gaussian Dispersion Model and Puff Model.
 Among these the most commonly used model for
the dispersion of gaseous air pollutants is the
Gaussian model, in which gases dispersed in the
atmosphere are assumed to exhibit ideal gas
behavior.

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 Gaussian Dispersion Model
 A Gaussian plume model can be used to
predict the downwind concentration resulting
from this point sources under a specific
atmospheric condition. The principles on
which the model is based are:
 Wind is the predominant force in pollutants
downwind transport.
 The greatest concentration of pollutant
molecules is along the plume center line.
 Molecules diffuse spontaneously from regions
of higher to regions of lower concentration.
 The pollutant is emitted continuously, and
steady emission and dispersion process.

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 As the plume moves downwind, it Cont…
spreads both laterally and vertically
away from the plume centerline as
the gas molecules move from higher
to lower concentrations. Cross
sections of the pollutant
concentration along both the Y and
the Z axis thus have the shape of
Gaussian curves.
 Since stack gases are generally
emitted at temperatures higher than
ambient, the buoyant plume will rise
some distance before beginning to
travel downwind. The sum of this
vertical travel distance and the
geometric stack height is H, the
effective stack height. The source of
the pollutant plume is, in effect, a
source elevated above the ground at
elevation Z = H, and the downwind
concentration emanating from this
elevated source is:

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 Cont…
Q Y2 Z+H 2
C X, Y, Z = exp − exp − +
2πUσY σZ 2σY 2 2σZ 2
Z−H 2
exp −
2σZ 2

where, C (x, y, z) is the concentration at some

point in space with coordinates x, y, z, and
Q = the emission rate of the pollution source
(in m3/s), u = the average wind speed in (m/s),
σ𝑦 = the standard deviation of the plume in
the y direction (m), and σ𝑧 = the standard
deviation of the plume in the z direction (m).

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 Cont…
 The units of concentration are grams per cubic meter (g/m3).
Since pollution concentrations are usually measured at ground
level, that is, for z = 0, the above equation usually reduces to
Q Y2 H 2
C X, Y, 0 = exp − 2
exp −
πUσY σZ 2σY 2σZ 2
 This equation takes into account the reflection of gaseous
pollutants from the surface of the ground. We are usually
interested in the greatest value of the ground level
concentration in any direction, and this is the concentration
along the plume centerline; that is, for y = 0. In this case:
Q H 2
C X, 0,0 = exp −
πUσY σZ 2σZ 2
 Finally, for a source of emission at ground level, H = 0, and the
ground level concentration of pollutant downwind along the
Q
plume centerline is given by; C X, 0,0 =
πUσY σZ

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 Cont…
 The standard deviations σy , and σZ , are
measures of the plume spread in the
crosswind (lateral) and vertical directions,
respectively.
 They depend on atmospheric stability and
on distance from the source.
 Atmospheric stability is classified in
categories A through F, called stability classes.

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Table: Stability class, wind speed, and sunshine
conditions
Wind speed Day Incoming solar radiation Night Thin overcast
At 10m (m/s)
Strong Moderate Slight 1/2 low cloud 3/8 cloud

<2 A A-B B

2-3 A-B B C E F

3-5 B B-C C D E

5-6 C C-D D D E

>6 C D D D D

1/5/2020 41
 Cont…
 Class A is the least stable; Class F is the most
stable. In terms of ambient lapse rates, Classes
A, B, and C are associated with super adiabatic
conditions; Class D with neutral conditions;
and Classes E and F with sub-adiabatic
conditions.
 A seventh, Class G, indicates conditions of
extremely severe temperature inversion, but in
considering frequency of occurrence is usually
combined with Class F. Values for the lateral
and vertical dispersion constants, σy and σZ ,
are given graphically.

1/5/2020 42
Figure:6.2 A and B, standard deviation or dispersion coefficient, σy 𝑎𝑛𝑑 σz , in the
crosswind and in the vertical direction respectively as a function of downwind
distance.
1/5/2020 43
 Cont…
Example 6.2: An oil pipeline leak results in
emission of 100g/h of H2S. On a very sunny
summer day, with a wind speed of 3 m/s, what
will be the concentration of H2S 1.5 km directly
downwind from the leak?
Solution: From Table 6.1, we may assume Class B
stability. Then, from Fig 6.2 A and B, at x = 1.5km,
σy is approximately 210m and, σz is
approximately 160m, and Q = 100g/h = 0.0278
g/s.Then:
0.0278 g/s
C 1500,0,0 = = 8.77 x 10-8
π∗3m/s∗210m∗160m
g/m3 = 0.088 µg/m3.

1/5/2020 44
 Cont…
Example 6.3: A coal burning electric generating plant
emits 1.1 kg/min of SO2 from a stack with an effective
height of 60m. On a thinly overcast evening, with a
wind speed of 5.0 m/s, what will be the ground level
concentration of SO2 500 m directly downwind from
the stack?
Solution
 From Table1, we may assume Class D stability. Then,
from Fig. 2 A&B, at x = 0.5 km, σy is approximately
35m and σz is approximately 19m, and Q =
1.1kg/min = 18g/s. In this problem, the release is
elevated, and H = 60 m.Then,
18g/s 60m 2
C X, 0,0 = 5m exp − 2 =11.8*10 -
π∗ s ∗35m∗19m 2(19m)
6g/m3=11.8µg/m3

1/5/2020 45
 6.6.2. Effective Stack Height
 The effective stack height is the height above
ground at which the plume begins to travel
downwind the effective release point of the
pollutant and the origin of its dispersion.
 A number of empirical models exist for
calculating the plume rise h - the height above
the stack to which the plume rises before
dispersing downwind.
 Three equations that give a reasonably accurate
estimate of plume rise have been developed by
Carson and Moses (1969) for different stability
conditions.

1/5/2020 46
 Cont…
 For super-adiabatic conditions:
𝑉𝑠 𝑑 𝑄ℎ 0.5
Δh = 3.47 + 5.15
u u
 For neutral stability:
𝑉𝑠 𝑑 𝑄ℎ 0.5
Δh = 0.35 + 2.64
u u
 and for sub-adiabatic conditions:
𝑉𝑠 𝑑 𝑄ℎ 0.5
Δh = −1.04 + 2.24
u u
 where; V = stack gas exit speed (in m/s), d = stack
diameter (in m), and and Qh = heat emission rate
from the stack (in kJ/s).

1/5/2020 47
 Cont…
Example 6.4: A power plant has a stack with a
diameter of 2 m and emits gases with a stack exit
velocity of 15 m/s and a heat emission rate of
4,800 J/s. The wind speed is 5m/s. Stability is
neutral. Estimate the plume rise. If the stack has a
geometric height of 40 m, what is the effective
stack height?
Solution
15𝑚/𝑠∗2
 Using the above equation: Δh = 0.35 +
5m/s
48000.5
2.64 =38.7m, H=40m+38.7m=78.7m
5

1/5/2020 48
 Air Pollution Control
 Limiting emissions into the air is both
technically difficult and expensive.
 However, since rain and deposition are the
only air cleaning mechanisms available, and
neither is very efficient.
 Good air quality depends on pollution
prevention and on limiting what goes into the
air.
 The control of air pollutant emissions can be
possible in different separate ways such as
source reduction, collection, cooling,
treatment and dispersion.

1/5/2020 49
 Cont…
Source correction
 Generally, source correction or pollutant reduction from
stationary sources include, Raw material substitution/changes,
Process changes, Product change, Equipment modification or
replacement and Good manufacturing practice.
Collection of pollutants
 Collection of pollutants for treatment is often the most serious
problem in air pollution control. Automobile exhaust is a
notorious polluter mainly because the effluent (exhaust) is so
difficult to trap and treat. If automobile exhaust could be
channeled to a central treatment facility, treatment could be
more efficient in controlling each individual car. Process exhaust
gases channeled through one or more stacks are relatively easy
to collect, but fugitive emissions from windows and doors, cracks
in the walls, and dust raised during on-site transportation of
partially processed materials pose a difficult collection problem.
Some industries must overhaul the entire plant air flow system
to provide adequate control.

1/5/2020 50
 Cont…
Cooling
 The exhaust gases to be treated are sometimes too hot for the
control equipment, and must first be cooled. Cooling may also drop
the temperature below the condensation point of some pollutants, so
that they may be collected as liquids. Dilution, quenching, and heat
exchange, are all acceptable cooling methods. Quenching has the
added advantage of scrubbing out some gases and particulate matter,
but may yield a dirty, hot liquid that itself requires disposal. Cooling
coils are probably the most widely used cooling method and are
especially appropriate where heat can be conserved.
Treatment
 Selection of the correct treatment device requires matching the
characteristics of the pollutant with features of the control device.
Pollutant particles vary in size over many orders of magnitude, from
ideal gas molecules to macroscopic particles several millimeters in
diameter. One device will not be effective and efficient for all
pollutants, or even for all pollutants coming from the same stack.

1/5/2020 51
6.7.5. Control Devices for Particulate Emissions
Particulate collection mechanisms
 Impaction: In the impaction mechanism, large particles moving toward the
target have mass, and therefore momentum, which causes each particle to
travel in a straight line toward the target. The particle leaves the streamline
as the streamline bends to move around the target. The greater the mass of
the particle, the more likely it will travel in a straight line. Also, as the velocity
difference between the particle and the target increases, the particle will
have increased momentum and will be more likely to be carried into the
target. The radius of curvature of the bend in the streamline has a very
important effect on the probability that a particle will be carried into the
target. The smaller the radius of curvature, the less likely a particle will follow
the streamline. Therefore, small targets are more likely to be impacted than
large targets.
 Interception: Interception is the mechanism by which particles of roughly
0.1 to 1micron diameter are carried by the gas streamline sufficiently close
to the surface of the target that the particle touches the target. These
particles have insufficient inertia not to leave the gas streamline and are
carried with the streamline. Some gas will flow very close to the particle.
Interception is a relatively weak mechanism for particle collection compared
to impaction and diffusion. It is coincidental that the path of the streamline
and the particle happens to be close to the target. It is for this reason that
particles in this size range are difficult to collect compared to larger and
smaller particles.

1/5/2020 52
 Cont…
 Diffusion: Diffusion of extremely small, submicron particles is a result of
Brownian motion. These particles are so small that the mass of the particles
is very small and the number of collisions with air molecules is low.
Therefore, random collisions with air molecules cause the particle to bounce
around. They are moved from one gas streamline to the next by random
motion. If sufficient time is allowed, and if the distance to the target is small,
then diffusion can be an effective collection mechanism.
 Electrostatic attraction: If particles acquire a charge and are placed in an
electric field, the electrostatic force will move the particles across gas flow
streamlines. Electrostatic forces on small particles can be quite large, making
this a very effective mechanism for particle collection. This mechanism is
utilized in electrostatic precipitators.
 Gravity: The force of gravity is sufficient to pull very large particles out of a
gas stream. Some mechanical separators are designed to slow a gas stream to
allow particles to settle. However, gravity is a weak mechanism for all but the
heaviest particles.
 Centrifugal force: Centrifugal force is the basis for cyclonic separation as a
dusty gas is spun into a circle.
 Thermophoresis: When a temperature gradient exists across a gas space,
there will be a small temperature difference from one side of a particle to
the other side. Gas molecules on the high-temperature side of the particle
collide with the particle with more energy than gas molecules on the cooler
side. This causes the particle to move slightly toward the cold side.
Thermophoresis is a relatively weak mechanism for particle collection, but it
can have a small effect on collection efficiency.
1/5/2020 53
Basic particle collection mechanisms

1/5/2020 54
 Settling chamber
For a settling chamber having dimensions L×W×H, and n
number of trays including the bottom surface, the
hydraulic diameter for flow passage between the trays is
given by:
2∗WΔH
Dh =
W+ΔH
And the Reynolds number
u∗ρ∗Dh
Re =
µ
where u, the velocity inside the chamber, is:
Q
u=
nWΔH
where, Q = volume flow rate of the gas stream. Substituting
for u and Dh in Eq. 2, we get:
2Qρ
Re =
n∗µ(W+ΔH)

1/5/2020 55
 Cont…
 The spacing between the trays, ΔH, is given by:
H
ΔH =
n
provided there is no dust layer initially present on the tray surface.
Substituting for ΔH. we have
2Qρ
Re =
µ(nW+ΔH)
If a layer of dust Hd is initially present, then
H
ΔH = − Hd
n
with this modification,
2Qρ
Re =
µ(nW+H−nHd )
 For laminar flow conditions (Re <2300) within the trays, particles
of size dP of a particulate material will settle a distance y with a
terminal velocity vt, in time t. During this time the particles are
transported a distance L with the velocity of the gas stream.
Equating these two, we have:
y L
=
vt u
1/5/2020 56
 Cont…
 The value of y can be found from a knowledge of the particle settling velocity. If the particles
are uniformly distributed over the incoming stream, the efficiency of the collection.
L∗vt n∗W∗L∗vt
𝜂= =
u∗ΔH Q
 When y ≥ ΔH, all particles of that size (or larger) will be collected in the settling chamber. The
terminal settling velocity of the particles is found by equating the drag force on the particle
with the weight minus the buoyancy of the particle:
4𝑔𝑑𝑝 (𝜌𝑝 −𝜌𝑔 )
𝑣𝑡 =
3𝐶𝐷 𝜌𝑔
 where CD is the drag coefficient which is related to the particle Reynolds number:
24
 In the stokes’ law region, CD = for Rep <1
Rep
 In the turbulent region (Re > 1000), the drag coefficient CD = 0.45.
 Several empirical equations have been suggested for transition region.
 Substituting Eq. 13 into Eq. 12, the terminal settling velocity in the Stokes’ region can be
calculated as follows:
𝑔𝑑𝑝 2 (𝜌𝑝 −𝜌𝑔 )
𝑣𝑡 =
18µ𝑔
 Th-e Stokes’ law is accurate for particles smaller than 100µm. The minimum particle size that
can be removed with 100% efficiency in a vertical settling chamber can be found from the
equation,
18µ𝑔
𝑑𝑝𝑚𝑖𝑛 =( )1/2
𝑛𝑊𝐿𝑔(𝜌𝑝 −𝜌𝑔 )
 This equation should only be used as guides to the collection efficiency of the settling chamber,
as several factors cause deviations. For turbulent flow, the following theoretical equation can be
used for computing the collection efficiency.
𝑛𝑊𝐿𝑣𝑡
𝜂 = 1 − exp (− )
𝑄
1/5/2020 57
 Scrubbers
 There are many scrubbers available, which provide contact between the scrubbing liquid and particles in a
variety of ways. Common types of scrubbers are:

Spray Tower,
◦ Centrifugal Scrubbers,
◦ Packed beds and Plate Towers, and
◦ Venturi Scrubbers.
 More efficient scrubbers promote the contact between air and water by violent action in a narrow throat
section into which the water is introduced. Generally, the more violent the encounter, hence the smaller the gas
bubbles or water droplets, the more effective the scrubbing. In a venturi scrubber, a “throat” section is built into
the duct that forces the gas stream to accelerate as the duct narrows and then expands.
 As the gas enters the venture throat, both gas velocity and turbulence increase. Depending on the scrubber
design, the scrubbing liquid is sprayed into the gas stream before the gas encounters the venturi throat, or in the
throat, or upwards against the gas flow in the throat. The scrubbing liquid is then atomized into small droplets by
the turbulence in the throat and droplet-particle interaction is increased. The venturi scrubber is essentially
100% efficient in removing particles >5 pm in diameter.The pressure drop is estimated by an empirical equation
ΔP = V2xL
where,
 ΔP = pressure drop across the venturi in centimeters of water,
 v = gas velocity in the throat (in cds), and
 L = water-to-gas volume ratio (in L/m3).
Advantages of Venturi Scrubbers

handle flammable and explosive dusts

 Can handle mists in process exhausts
 Relatively low maintenance
 Simple in design and easy to install
 Provides cooling for hot gases
 Neutralizes corrosive gases and dusts
1/5/2020 58
 Electrostatic Precipitator
 In this technique gas flows between two vertical parallel plates with several vertical wires
suspended between them. These wires are form a discharge electrode, while the vertical plates
form the collection electrode. Rapping the plate removes the collected dust; the dust gathers in
a dust hopper at the bottom. In a negative corona, ionized molecules are formed from the
corona glow caused by the high electrical gradient around the discharge wire. The space outside
the corona is filled with a dense cloud of negative ions. The dust particles will collide with some
of the ions giving them a negative charge. These charged particles will be driven by the electric
field toward the plates where they are collected.
 Collection efficiency of an electrostatic precipitator may be estimated by an empirical equation
as:
𝐴
η = 1 − exp −ω
𝑄
A = total area of the collecting surface of the collection electrodes (m2),
 Q = flow rate of gas through the pipe (m3/s), and
 ω = drift velocity or migration (m/s) it is usually between 0.03 and 0.2 m/s.
 Collection efficiency of a precipitator obtained by Deutch which can be used for both tubular
and plate type precipitators is:
𝐴𝐿
η = 1 − exp −ω
𝑣𝑉
where;V = volume of the precipitator, V = gas velocity
 For cylindrical type collector, A/V =4/D, and
 For parallel plate type collector, A/V = 2/S
 where D is the diameter of cylindrical tube, and S is the distance between two parallel plates
 For very high efficiency ESPs, empirical modifications of the Deutsch equation have been used
to fit observed data.These include:

1/5/2020 59
 Cont…
 The Hazen Equation:
𝑛
ω𝐴
η=1− 1+
𝑛𝑄
 The matta-Ohnfeldt:
ω𝐴 𝑥
η = 1 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝑄
where,
 n = empirical constant with typical values of
3 to 5, x = empirical constant typical set at
0.5.
1/5/2020 60
 Cyclones
 Cyclones use centrifugal force to remove
particles from the gas stream by creating a
double vortex inside the cyclone body.
 The incoming gas is forced into a circular
motion downward, forcing the particulates to
the inner surface of the cyclone walls.
 At the bottom of the cyclone, the gas turns and
then spirals up through the center of the
cyclone and exits out of the top outlet.
 Cyclones are efficient for large particle
collection, and are widely used as the first stage
of dust removal.

1/5/2020 61
 Cont…
 In cyclone, the inertial separating force is the radial component
of the simple centrifugal force and is a function of the tangential
velocity. Centrifugal force is given by:
mv2
Fc =
r
 Where, F = centrifugal force, m = mass of the particle, v =
tangential velocity of the particle at radius r, assumed to equal
outlet gas velocity and r = radius of (rotation) cyclone body.
 The magnitude of the centrifugal force is frequently described in
terms of the number of times this force exceeds the force of
gravity.The separation factor S is given by:
v2
S=
gr
 S is dimensionless, and may take values from 5 to as high as 2500.
A large separation factor requires high tangential velocities, thus
a small diameter and high velocity, leading to large pressure
drops across the cyclone.
 A large diameter cyclone, on the other hand, would have a small
separation factor.
1/5/2020 62
 Cont…
 The collection efficiency of a cyclone can be estimated by using the
concept of a cut diameter, the particle diameter at which 50% of the
particles are removed from the gas stream by the cyclone.
 The cut diameter is:
1
9Wµ 2
𝑑𝑝𝑐 =
2πNe Vi (ρp −ρg )
 Resident time of particles in the cyclone, which allows time for
particles to move toward the wall, is determined by the number of
effective turns that the gas path makes within the cyclone body.
 An empirical relationship for the number of effective turns is by:
1 L
𝑁𝑒 = (Lb + c )
H 2
where,

Ne = number of effective turns

H = height of tangential inlet
Lb =length of cyclone body
Lc = length of cyclone cone

1/5/2020 63
 Cont…
 The relationship works reasonably well for
determining the 50% cut diameter (the diameter of
the particle that is collected with 50% efficiency). To
better match data with reasonable accuracy, the
efficiency of other particle diameters can be
determined from Lapple’s empirical efficiency
correlation. This correlation can be set up for
automated calculations using the algebraic fit given:
1
𝜂𝑖 = 2
dp50
1+
dpi
 Where; ηi =collection efficiency of particle with
diameter “i”, dP50 (dPc) = (cut particle size) diameter
of particle with 50% collection efficiency and dPi =
diameter of particle i.

1/5/2020 64
 Table: Cyclone geometric configuration parameter
Parameter Dimension Standard Stairmand Swift

Inlet height H/D 0.5 0.5 0.44

Inlet width W/D 0.25 0.2 0.21

Gas exit diameter De/D 0.5 0.5 0.4

Body length Lb/D 2.0 1.5 1.4

Con length Lc/D 2.0 2.5 2.5

Vortex finder S/D 0.625 0.5 0.5

Dust outlet diameter Dd/D 0.25 0.375 0.4

Geometric parameter K 402.9 551.3 699.2

1/5/2020 65
 Cont…
 Pressure Drop: Pressure drop provides the driving force that generates gas velocity and
centrifugal force within a cyclone. Most pressure drop correlations are based on the number
of inlet velocity heads:
2
𝛥𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑉𝑖 2 𝑁𝐻
𝑔
Where; ΔP = pressure drop, μg = gas viscosity,Vi = inlet gas velocity
NH = pressure drop expressed as number of inlet velocity head
 One of the correlations for number of inlet velocity heads is by Miller and Lissman:
𝐷 2
𝑁𝐻 = 𝐾𝛥𝑃1
𝐷𝑒
where,
KΔP1 = constant based on cyclone configuration and operating conditions
D = diameter of the cyclone body, De = diameter of the exit tube
 A typical value for KP in the Miller and Lissman correlation is 3.2. For the standard cyclone
configuration described above, the Miller and Lissman correlation results in 12.8 inlet velocity
heads.Another correlation for number of inlet velocity heads is by Shepherd and Lapple:
𝐻𝑊
𝑁𝐻 = 𝐾𝛥𝑃2
𝐷𝑒 2
where,
KΔP = constant for cyclone configuration and operating condition
H = height of the inlet opening
W = width of the inlet opening and
De = diameter of the inlet tube
 The Shepherd and Lapple correlation results in 8 inlet velocity heads for the standard cyclone
dimensions, 6.4 inlet velocity heads for the Stairmand cyclone design, and 9.24 inlet velocity
heads for the Swift cyclone design.

1/5/2020 66
 Fabric Filtration-Baghouse
 Baghouse is a common term for the collection device that uses
fabric bags to filter particulate out of a gas stream.
 The filter bags are mounted on a tube-sheet and enclosed in a
sheet-metal housing.
 Filtration of particles from air commonly employs fabric bags as
the filter media, porous ceramic candles and paper cartridges
also are used to clean gas streams.
 A fabric filter baghouse system includes the bag cleaning system,
dust collection hoppers, and dust removal system, so that the total
system involves more than just filtration.
 Indeed, the primary collection mechanisms include impaction,
interception, and diffusion.
 The other interesting phenomenon about fabric filtration is that
emissions from new, clean bags tend to be higher than from
used bags.
 These embedded particles (dust cake) also tend to fill the gaps
between threads, reducing the opening size and increasing the
probability for collection by impaction, interception, and
diffusion.
1/5/2020 67
 Cont…
 Combined collection efficiency (ηf) by interception, impaction and diffusion is
given by:
ηf = 1-(1-ηimpact) (1-ηinter) (1-ηdiff)
 In addition to the mentioned collection mechanisms, electrostatic forces
between particles and fibers (due to friction) increase the collection efficiency.
Fabric filters usually provide collection efficiencies of 99% to 99.99%. The basic
design parameters for a fabric filter baghouse include cleaning mechanism (shake,
reverse air and pulse je), size (air to cloth ratio, air velocity), pressure drop (fan
power, vacuum/pressure rating), fabric (material, weave) and bag life (cleaning
frequency, gas composition and inlet design).

Key performance properties for fabric filtration media selection include
maximum allowable temperature, chemical resistance, abrasion resistance,
weave, weight, and strength. Fabric filters may be classified according to the
filter media:Woven or felt cloth.
 Air to Cloth Ratio: It is the gas flow rate divided by the fabric collection area.
The air to cloth ratio is also called the superficial velocity. A low air-to-cloth
ratio provides a large collection area, so dust cake buildup and pressure drop
increase at a lower rate than a high air-to-cloth ratio.
 Filtration velocity: The term filtration velocity and air-to cloth ratio can be
used interchangeably. Filtration velocity is given by the relation:

1/5/2020 68
 Q
Cont…
vf = A
Q = volumetric flow rate of air/gas, m3/min, A = area of cloth filter, m2
 Air to-cloth ratio (A/C) is defined as the ratio of the gas filtered in m3 per
minute to the area of filtering media in m2. To determine the number of bags
required in the baghouse, the following formula is used:
total cloth area Acl
N= =
bag area Ab
 For cylindrical shaped bag with diameter D and height h, the bag area is:
𝜋𝐷2
Ab = Acurvedsur + Acurvedsur = 𝜋𝐷ℎ + 4
 Total cloth area, Acl is:
Q
A=
vf
Pressure Drop: As particles adhere to the fabric, the removal efficiency
increases, but so does the pressure drop. The pressure drop is the sum of the
pressure drop owing to the fabric and the drop owing to the caked or adhered
particles, and is expressed as:
Xf Xp
𝛥𝑃 = 𝑣µ +
Kf Kp
where, ΔP = overall pressure drops in meters of water, v = superficial gas velocity
through the fabric, μ = gas viscosity, x = thickness of filter (f) and particle layer (p),
and K = filter (f) and particle layer (p) permeability.

1/5/2020 69
 Cont…
Advantages of fabric filters
 Very high efficiency,
 Retention of fine particles,
 Particulate collection in dry form, and
 Relatively low pressure drops.
Disadvantages of fabric filters
 Large size
 High construction costs, and
 Application to process temperature generally
below 285oC

1/5/2020 70
 Gaseous Emission Control
 There are essentially two classes of
techniques by which gaseous pollutants may
be removed from an effluent gas stream:
 physical separation (absorption,
condensation, adsorption) and
 chemical conversion/incineration
(VOCs, Hydrogen Sulfide and Nitrogen
Oxides).

1/5/2020 71
 Absorption
 Absorption is a diffusional mass transfer operation by which a soluble
gaseous component is removed from a gas stream by dissolution in a
solvent liquid.
 The driving force can be interpreted as the difference between the
partial pressure of the soluble gas in the gas mixture and the vapor
pressure of the solute gas in the liquid film in contact with the gas.
 Absorption systems can use water as the primary absorbing liquid and
a low volatility organic liquid.
 Regeneration alternatives are distillation, solvent extraction; and
pollutant liquid adsorption. In aqueous system, water-soluble gases
such as HCI, HF, and SiF4 can be absorbed in water efficiently and
readily.
 Less soluble acidic gases such as SO2, C12 and H2S can be absorbed
more readily in a dilute caustic solution. The scrubbing liquid may be
made alkaline with dissolved soda ash or sodium bicarbonate, or with
NaOH.
 In non-aqueous system, volatile organic liquids are used for
absorbing hydrocarbon and organic vapors, which has an advantage of
energy conservation when solvent regeneration must occur by
stripping. Care must be exercised in selecting/picking solvent that
itself will not become a source of VOC pollution.
1/5/2020 72
 Cont…
 The effectiveness of an absorption process for air pollution control
mostly depends on the selection of a suitable scrubbing liquid. Favorable
properties include Solubility. Low flammability and viscosity, High
chemical stability, Non-corrosive and low toxicity, low pollution
potential, easy regeneration and recovery, low costs, and low viscosity
at absorption temperature.
Absorber Design
 The mass-transfer efficiency of the absorber determines the height of
the column, but it is not as important consideration as the pressure
drop.
 The packing provides more surface area and a greater degree of
turbulence to promote mass transfer. In the usual counter-current flow
column, the lighter phase enters the bottom and passes upward. The
two main factors to be determined in countercurrent absorption
column design are the height of packing influenced by the mass-
transfer conditions, and the tower diameter, influenced by the flow
rate of the gas to be treated.
 packed (random & structured) tower causes pressure losses to move
fluids through the column.

1/5/2020 73
 Cont…
 The packing provides more
surface area and a greater
degree of turbulence to
promote mass transfer.
 In the usual counter-current
flow column, the lighter phase
enters the bottom and passes
upward.
 The two main factors to be
determined in countercurrent
absorption column design are
the height of packing
influenced by the mass-
transfer conditions, and the
tower diameter.

1/5/2020 74
 Cont…
 In tray or plate tower absorption takes place as
gas passes through the holes drilled or perforation
in the tray or under slotted caps immersed in the
liquid forming bubbles and their ascent through the
liquid.
 In spray tower, liquid droplets provide the mass
transfer surface to absorb highly soluble gases and
solid particles when these are present in the gas.
 In venturi scrubbers the gas and the liquid flow in
the same direction. The absorbing liquid is
introduced at the throat of the venturi and the
dispersion of the liquid is accomplished by the
velocity gas stream. The resulting large interfacial
area makes the venturi scrubber an extremely
efficient absorber.
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 Adsorption
 Adsorption is a surface phenomenon by which gas or liquid molecules are
captured by and adhere to the surface of a solid adsorbent. The attractive
forces/bonds holding the molecules at the surface may be either physical
(physical adsorption) or chemical (chemisorptrion) in nature.
 In physical adsorption, the gaseous substance condenses upon the surface of the
solid accompanied by an evolution of heat. Electrostatic forces hold the
pollutant gas in physical adsorption (when physical bonding is significant).
Whereas, chemisorption is the result of a chemical reaction between the solid
and the adsorbed (adsorbate) material/substance.
 The adsorbed material/ substance can be removed or desorbed by reducing the
pressure or by increasing the temperature. Thus, physical adsorption process is
reversible.
 The rate of adsorption of a substance depends on temperature, polarity, and the
chemical nature of adsorbent surface, the concentration of the material around
the adsorbent, the surface area of the adsorbent and pore volume of the
adsorbent. Some of the adsorbent commonly used in air pollution control are
activated carbon, activate alumina, silica gel, and molecular sieves.
 Removal of pollutants by adsorption may be carried out in a batch-wise or
continuous manner of operation. When the gas first enters the solid bed, the
front portion of the bed adsorbs the pollutant gas very rapidly and the little
amount of solute/pollutant left is taken up by the deeper layer of the bed. Thus,
the gas initially leaving the bed is almost completely free of the pollutant.

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 Cont…
Fixed bed adsorber  After a period of time, the layers of
the solid at the entrance become
saturated with the adsorbed gas
and the active adsorption zone
moves deeper into the bed.
 Finally, when the front of the active
zone reaches the bottom of the
bed, the bed starts becoming
inactive and the pollutant level in
the exit gas streams starts to rise
and continue rising until it
approaches the influent
concentration.
 The curve of pollutant
concentration as function of time
thus has an S-shaped appearance
and is commonly called the break-
through curve.

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 Cont…
 The time at which the
break-through curve first
Typical break-through curve
begins to rise appreciably
is called the break
through point, and the
time at which the outlet
effluent concentration
essentially
reaches/approaches that
of the inlet concentration
is called the exhaustion
point.

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 Combustion
 When the contaminant in the gas stream is
oxidizable to an inert gas, combustion is a
possible alternative method of control.
 If the waste gas contains sufficient combustible
materials, then incineration may be the simplest
root to air pollution control.
Combustion applications include:
 The destruction of odors, toxic substances, and
reactive materials
 The prevention of explosive hazards, and
 The reduction of pollutants in the oxidized
forms
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 Cont…
 Thermal incineration is perhaps the most efficient as
well as the most flexible technique for destroying such
dilute gas streams.
 In thermal incinerator, the waste gas is preheated often
over an auxiliary fuel-fired burner and passed into a
combustion chamber where a temperature of 500 to
800oC is maintained.
 The gas stream is kept at this elevated temperature
long enough (0.3 to 0.7sec residence time) to allow
complete oxidation. The major operating cost is in the
form fuel required to sustain appropriate temperature
levels.
 Catalytic Oxidation: This becomes important when
thermal incineration of very dilute pollutants is not
economically feasible due to additional fuel cost or
when heat recovery would result in only marginal
savings.

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