CHAPTER 3

• Introduction to Fluid Dynamics

• Control Surface/Area/Volume
• Flow Type
• Streakline, Streamline & Pathline
• CONTINUITY EQUATION
• BERNOULLI EQUATION
 Introduction to fluid dynamics
• Fluid dynamics is a study of fluid in motions.
• It has several subdisciplines including aerodynamics (the
study of air and other gases in motion) and
hydrodynamics (the study of liquids in motion).
• Fluid dynamics has a wide range of applications e.g : forces
and moments calculation on aircraft, determining the mass
flow rate of petroleum through pipelines, predicting weather
patterns etc.
• The solution to a fluid dynamics problem typically involves
calculating various properties of the fluid, such as velocity,
pressure and flow rate.
 Average Velocity
• The variation of velocity across the pipe section is known as
the velocity profile or distribution.
• The velocity in the pipe normally is not constant across the
cross section. A typical one is shown in the figure below.

• The velocity is zero at the walls increasing to a maximum at

the centre then decreasing symmetrically to the other wall.
• Because of this variation, it is convenience to work with
average velocity.
 Flow type
Steady flow - A flow in which the fluid properties such as
velocity, temperature and pressure at a point in the
system do not change over time.
Unsteady flow - A flow in which at least one variable at
a fixed point in the flow changes with time .
Uniform flow - The velocity of the fluid has the same
magnitude and direction at any position in the fluid flow.
Non-uniform flow – The velocity magnitude and
direction are not equal at any position in the fluid flow.
Compressible flow – ?
Incompressible flow - ?
Streamline

• A streamline is a curve that is everywhere tangent to

the velocity vector.
• Streamlines are useful as indicators of the instantaneous
direction of fluid motion throughout the flow field.
• Every streamline in a flow has a unique streamline function, ᴪ,
associated with it (i.e. the stream function, ψ, is constant).
• As such, no flows across any streamline are possible → flows
are “fenced-up” from one another by streamlines.
In a steady flow, fluid particle normally moves along a
streamline…so streaklines, streamlines and pathlines are the
same (coincide).
 Control Surface/Area/Volume
• In fluid mechanics, it is more convenient to work with
control volume.
• Control volume = a specific region, space or area chosen for
study.

• 1D analysis – although simple (almost not describe the

actual situation) but it gives a useful engineering estimate.
 CONTINUITY EQUATION

• Mass flow rate, m.

• Volume flow rate, Q
• Continuity Equation
• Derivation of the Continuity Equation
 Mass flow rate, m
• The amount of mass flowing through a cross section per
unit time is called the mass flow rate and is denoted by
m. The dot over a symbol is used to indicate time rate of
m
change.
• If we want to measure the rate at which water is flowing
along a pipe, a very simple way of doing this is to collect
all the water coming out of the pipe in a bucket over a
fixed time period.
• Measuring the weight of the water in the bucket and
dividing this by the time taken to collect this water gives a
rate of accumulation of mass or the mass flow rate.
 cont…

• For example an empty bucket weighs 2.0 kg. After 7

seconds of collecting water the bucket weighs 8.0 kg, so:
 cont…

• Performing a similar calculation, if we know the mass flow

is 1.7 kg/s, how long will it take to fill a container with 8
kg of fluid?
 Volume flow rate, Q
• More commonly we need to know is the discharge or the
volume flow rate (or simply called flow rate).
• The volume flow rate, Q is defined as the volume of the
fluid flowing through a cross-section per unit time or.

Volume, 
Q or Q  velocity area  VA,
Time, t
• The SI unit for Q is m3/s.
• However, in practice the unit commonly used is l/s (litre
per second).
 Relationship between m
 and Q
• Multiplying Q by the density of the fluid gives us the
mass flow rate, or,
m  Q  kg / s
• Consequently, if the density of the fluid in the previous
example is 850 kg/m3 then:
Example 1
A garden hose attached with a
nozzle is used to fill a 10-gal
bucket. The inner diameter of
the hose is 2 cm, and it reduces
to 0.8 cm at the nozzle exit. If it
takes 50 s to fill the bucket with
water, determine

(a) the volume and mass flow

rates of water through the hose,
(b) the average velocity of
water at the nozzle exit.
 CONTINUITY EQUATION

• Matter cannot be created or destroyed but it is simply

changed into a different form of matter.
• This principle is know as the conservation of mass and it is
used in the analysis of flowing fluids to derive the continuity
equation.
• Generally;
Mass entering per unit time = Mass leaving per unit time +
Increase of mass in the control volume per unit time

• For steady flow there is no increase in the mass within the

control volume ,
Mass entering per unit time = Mass leaving per unit time
Derivation of the Continuity Equation

• Consider a streamtube such as

shown at the figure in the left side.
• A liquid is flowing from left to right
and the pipe is narrowing in the
same direction. No fluid flows
across the boundary so mass only
enters and leaves through the two
ends of this streamtube section.
• By the continuity principle, the
mass flow rate must be the same
at each section - the mass going
into the pipe is equal to the mass
going out of the pipe.
• So we can write:
1A1V1 = 2A2V2
• Or for steady flow,
1A1V1 = 2A2V2 = constant
• This equation is called as continuity equation.

• When the fluid is considered as incompressible (i.e. the

density does not change or ρ1 = ρ2 = ρ), therefore,

A1V1= A2V2= Q

• This is the form of the continuity equation most often used.

 BERNOULLI EQUATION
• Introduction to Bernoulli Equation
• Limitations on the Use of the Bernoulli Eqn.
• Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
• Other forms of Bernoulli Equation
• Stagnation pressure
• Bernoulli Equation’s Applications
- orifice in reservoir
- orifice in pipes
- pitot tube
- venturi meter
- weirs
 Introduction to Bernoulli Equation
• Bernoulli Equation is the most popular equation in fluid
mechanics.
• The Bernoulli equation is an approximate relation between
pressure, velocity, and elevation, and is valid in regions of
steady, incompressible flow where net frictional forces are
negligible.
• It is derived from Euler equation (Leonhard Euler – the
greatest Swiss mathematician).
• The Bernoulli equation is one of the most frequently used
and misused equations in fluid mechanics. Its versatility,
simplicity, and ease of use make it a very valuable tool for
use in analysis, but the same attributes also make it very
tempting to misuse. Therefore, it is important to understand
the restrictions on its applicability and observe the
limitations on its use.
Limitations on the Use of the Bernoulli Eqn.
1. Steady flow - applicable to steady flow.
2. Frictionless flow - Every flow involves some friction, no matter how
small, and frictional effects may or may not be negligible. The situation
is complicated. But in general, frictional effects are negligible for short
flow sections with large cross sections, especially at low flow velocities.
(viscousity assumed as constant or no fiction losses occur).
3. Incompressible flow - One of the assumptions used in the derivation
of the Bernoulli equation is that ρ = constant and thus the flow is
incompressible. This condition is satisfied by liquids and also by gases
at Mach numbers less than about 0.3 since compressibility effects and
thus density variations of gases are negligible at such relatively low
velocities.
4. Flow along a streamline - The Bernoulli equation is applicable along
a streamline, and the value of the constant C, in general, is different for
different streamlines.

Others : no shaft work like pump/turbine, etc. (Refer cengel)

Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
• Consider the motion of a fluid particle in a flow field in
steady flow.
 Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation

Steady flow:

Bernoulli
Steady, incompressible flow:
The forces acting on a fluid equation
particle along a streamline.
The sum of the kinetic, potential, and The Bernoulli equation between any
flow energies of a fluid particle is two points on the same streamline:
constant along a streamline during
steady flow when compressibility and
frictional effects are negligible.
Other forms of Bernoulli Equation

2. Total head - by dividing each

term of the Bernoulli equation
(1) by g.

**

pressure head + velocity head + elevation head = C

3. Total pressure - by multiplying

each term of the Bernoulli
equation (1) by density ρ.

1. Total energy

static pressure + dynamic pressure + hydrostatic pres. = C

** commonly used
The Bernoulli equation between two points can be written as :

Or in the form of total head eqn. :

?
 Stagnation pressure

• The stagnation pressure represents the pressure at a

stagnation point, where the fluid is brought to a
complete stop isentropically ( or fluid particle velocity
equal to zero).

• Eg. of stagnation point :

The stagnation pressure is the sum of the static and
dynamic pressures and it is expressed as

When static and stagnation pressures are measured at

a specified location, the fluid velocity at that location
can be calculated from :
Bernoulli Equation’s Applications
• The Bernoulli equation can be applied to a great many
situations. In the following sections we will see some
examples of its application in flow measurement from tanks,
within pipes as well as in open channels.
• Its include the pitot tube and also the devices to measure
flowrate in pipes and conduits such as orifice and venturi
meters. The operation of each is based on the same
physical principles - an increase in velocity causes a
decrease in pressure. The difference between them
normally is a matter of cost and accuracy.
• In this chapter we will consider “ideal flow meters” - those
devoid of viscous, compressibility, and other “real-world”
effects.
 General steps to solve problem involving
Bernoulli Eqn.

Normally the Bernoulli equation is used to determine the

flowrate, pressure or velocity at a given point. The following
steps might be useful to solve the problems involving Bernoulli
equation.

i. Consider the figure and identify point 1 and 2.

ii. Write the Bernoulli eqn between the two points.
iii. List out and substitute all known information in Bernoulli
eqn.
iv. Use continuity eqn if needed.
v. Solve the equation to determine the required value.
Flow Through Orifice at Reservoir

• Orifice = small opening.

• E.g of application : drain outlet at
tank/vessel.
• Purpose : to calculate the
rate/discharge at which a fluid
will flow from a tank so that the
time it takes to drain can be
calculated.
• Consider a flow of liquid from a tank through a hole in the wall side
close to the tank base. The general arrangement and a close up of the
hole and streamlines are shown in the figure below.

• At the streamlines, we can see the flow contract after the orifice to a
minimum value.
• This convergence is called the vena contracta (the point in a fluid
stream where the diameter of the stream is the least ).
• At this point, the velocity and pressure are uniform across the jet and it
is necessary to know the amount of contraction to allow us to calculate
the actual flow.
• This can be done by using a coefficient of contraction, Cc to
calculate the actual area and this will be shown later.
• We can predict the velocity at the orifice using the
Bernoulli equation.
• Apply it along the streamline joining point 1 on the surface
to point 2 at the centre of the vena contracta.
• We take point 1 to be at the free surface of water so that
P1=Patm (at the atmosphere), also P2=Patm (water
discharges into the atmosphere). V1≈0 (the tank is large
relative to the outlet), and z1=h and z2=0 (we take the
reference level at the center of the outlet).

• Then the Bernoulli equation simplifies to

• Leaving

• This is the theoretical value of velocity. It will be over

estimate of the real velocity because friction losses have not
been taken into account.
• To incorporate friction, we use the coefficient of
velocity, Cv to correct the theoretical velocity.
Vactual = CvVtheoretical
• Each orifice has its own coefficient of velocity, they usually
lie in the range of 0.97 - 0.99.
• To calculate the discharge through the orifice we multiply
the area of the jet by the velocity. The actual area of the jet
is the area of the vena contracta not the area of the orifice.
• We obtain this area by using a coefficient of contraction
for the orifice
Aactual= Cc Aorifice
• So the discharge through the orifice is given by
Q  AV
 AactualVactual
 Cc AorificeCvVtheoretical
 CcCv AorificeVtheoretical
 Cd AorificeVtheoretical
 Cd Aorifice 2 gh
• Where coefficient of discharge, Cd is given by Cc
multiply by Cv.
Cd=CcCv

• The discharge coefficient Cd depends on the configuration

of the outlet.
Example 1

A large tank open to the

atmosphere is filled with water to
the height of 5 m from the outlet
tap. A tap near the bottom of the
tank is now opened, and water
flows out from the smooth and
rounded outlet. Determine the
water velocity at the outlet.
Example 2
An orifice 50 mm in diameter is discharging water under
a head of 10 m. If Cd = 0.6 and Cv = 0.97, find actual
velocity and actual discharge of the jet at vena contracta.
Example/Exercise 3
 Orifice Meter
• A plate which has an opening in it, smaller than the internal
diameter of the pipeline.
• Installed in a pipe which equipped with pressure measuring
devices.

Orifice plate Assembly in pipeline

Advantages :
• Simple design
• Low cost (compared to
venturi meter)
Disadvantages :
• Low Cd/larger energy
losses
• A typical value for a sharp
edged orifice being 0.65.
• The orifice plate produces a constriction of the flow as shown,
the cross sectional area A2 of the flow immediately downstream
of the plate being approximately the same as that of the
orifice.
• The theoretical discharge can be calculated from Bernoulli and
Continuity equation but the actual discharge may be as little as
two-third of this value. A coefficient of discharge also must be
introduced.

Fig 6.2: Orifice meter eqquiped with U-tube manometer

Example 1
For figure below, find the flowrate in pipe.
Example 2
An orifice meter having an inside diameter of 2.5 cm is
located in a 8 cm pipe. Water is flowing through the
pipe and the mercury manometer measures the
differential pressure over the pipe. When the
manometer reading is 35 cm, what is the flow rate of
water per minute?
Exercise 1 (from tutorial)

An orifice plate is used to measure the rate of air flow

through a 2 m diameter duct. The mean velocity in the
duct will not exceed 15 m/s and the water tube
manometer, having a maximum difference between water
levels of 150 mm, is to be used. Assuming the coefficient
of discharge to be 0.64, determine a suitable orifice
diameter to make full use of the manometer range. Take
the density of air as 1.2 kg/m3.
Exercise 2

• What diameter orifice hole, d, is needed if under ideal

conditions the flowrate through the orifice meter is to be
0.0019 m3/s of seawater with p1 – p2 = 16.3 kPa. The
contraction coefficient is assumed to be 0.63.
Venturi Meter • Venturi meter consists of a
short converging conical tube
leading to a cylindrical
portion, called the throat, of
smaller diameter than that of
the pipeline, which is followed
by a diverging section in
which the diameter increases
again to that of the main
pipeline.
• Normally is made from bronze
Advantages : – or cast iron (for huge size)
with bronze lining in inner
• Higher Cd/small energy section for a smooth surface.
losses -
• Equipped with pressure
Disadvantages : measurement devices such as
• Difficult to manufacture piezometer, manometer or
pressure gauge.
• expensive
Orientation of venturi in pipeline system

Horizontal with pressure gauge

Inclined with manometer and

Horizontal with manometer piezometer
• The pressure difference from which the volume rate of flow can be
determined is measured between the entry section 1 and the throat
section 2, often by means of a U-tube manometer (as shown).
• The axis of the meter may be inclined at any angle.

Fig 6.1: Inclined venturi meter and U tube

• Assuming that there is no loss of energy, and applying
Bernoulli’s equation to section 1 and 2,

P1 V12 P2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2
ρg 2g ρg 2g
V22 - V12 = 2g [(P1 - P2 )/ ρg + (z1 - z2 )]

• For continuous flow,

A1V1 = A2V2 or V2 = (A1 / A2 )V1

• Substituting in equation 6.1

V12 [(A1 /A2 ) - 1] = 2g [(P1 - P2 )/ ρg + (z1 - z2 )]

2

A2
V1 = 1 2g[(P1 - P2 )/ρg + (z1 - z2 )]
(A 2
1 -A 2 2
2
)
• Volume rate of flow


Q  A1V1  A1 A2 /(A - A ) 2
1
2
2
1
2
 (2gH )
where H  (P1 - P2 )/g + (z1 - z 2 )or m  Area ratio  A1 /A2

Q  A1 /(m - 1) 2
1
2
 (2gH ) (eq 6.2)
• In practice some loss of energy will occur between section 1
and 2. The value of Q given by the equation 6.2 is a
theoretical value which will be slightly greater than the
actual value.
• A coefficient of discharge, Cd is therefore introduced.
Actual discharge, Qactual = Cd x Qtheoretical

• The value of H in the equation can be found from the

reading of the U-tube gauge (Fig6.1).
• Assuming that the connections to the gauge are filled with
the fluid flowing in the pipeline, which has density ρ, and
that the density of the manometric liquid in the bottom of
the U-tube is ρman.
• Then, since pressure at the same level XX must be the same
in both limbs,

Px  P1  g ( z1  z)  P2  g ( z2  z  h)  manhg
• Expanding and rearranging,

H  ( P1  P2 ) / g  ( z1  z2 )  h( man /  1)
• Equation 6.2 can be written


Q  A1 /(m - 1)
2
1
2
  ρman
2gh
 ρ

1 

eq 6.3
• Note that eq 6.3 is independent of z1 and z2, so that the
manometer reading h for a given rate of flow Q is not
affected by the inclination of the meter,
• If however, the actual pressure difference (p1-p2) is
measured and equation 6.1 and 6.2 used, the values of z1
and z2 and, therefore, the slope of the meter must be taken
into account.
Example 1

A venturi meter having a throat diameter d2 of 100 mm is

fitted into a pipeline which has an diameter d1 of 250 mm
through which oil of specific gravity 0.9 is flowing. The
pressure difference between the entry and the throat
tappings is measured by a U-tube manometer, containing
mercury. If the difference of level indicated by the mercury
in the U-tube is 0.63 m, calculate the theoretical volume rate
of flow through the meter.
Example 2
Water flows through a pipe reducer
as is shown in figure. The static
pressure at point (1) and (2) are
measured by the differential
manometer containing oil of specific
gravity, SG which less than one. For
this manometer, show that the
manometer reading, h is given by
 Exercise 1
• A venturi meter with an entrance diameter of 0.3 m and a throat
diameter of 0.2 m is used to measure the volume of gas flowing through
a pipe. Assuming the specific weight of the gas to be constant at 19.62
N/m3, calculate the volume flowing when the pressure difference
between the entrance and the throat is measured as 0.06 m on U-tube
manometer. Given the discharge coefficient Cd is 0.96.
Exercise 2
JP-4 fuel with SG=0.77 flows through the venturi meter with
velocity of 4.57 m/s in the 15 cm pipe. If viscous rffects are
negligible, determine the elevation h, of the fuel in the open
tube connected to the throat of the venturi meter.
Pitot tube
• The pitot tube is a simple
and inexpensive way used
to measure the velocity of
a fluid stream.
• Consists of a simple L-
shaped tube with opened
end,facing into the
oncoming flow.
• Use the principle of
stagnation point - a particle
is brought to rest at
stagnation point result a
greater pressure at this
point.
 pitot tube

- Attached with piezometer – to

measure static pressure while
pitot tube is to measure dynamic
pressure.

pitot tube static

• In the Pitot-static tube, the inner tube

is used to measure the
impact/dynamic pressure when the
outer sheath has holes in its surface
to measure the static pressure.
Example 1

• A piezometer and a pitot

tube are tapped into a
horizontal water pipe to
measure static and
stagnation pressures. For
the water column heights,
determine the velocity at
the center of the pipe.

Ans : 1.53 m/s

Example 2
The specific gravity for manometric fluid as shown in
figure below is 1.07. Calculate the flow rate, Q if the fluid
flowing in the pipe are;
i. water
ii. air
Exercise 1
An airplane flies 44.7 m/s at an elevation of 3048 m in a
standard atmosphere. Determine the pressure at point (1) far
ahead of the airplane, the pressure at the stagnation point on
the nose of the airplane (point 2), and the pressure difference
indicated by a pitot-static probe attached the the fuselage.
THANK YOU !